Workforce Effectiveness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Workforce Effectiveness - Essay Example In this way in carrying out his responsibility, the HR chief should know about why and how he/she should complete his obligations. So as to be viable the supervisor should be exceptionally energetic, reasonable and visionary among numerous different attributes. In building up a security strategy association savvy the HR chief should address the issue of requirements on the conduct of laborers just as the limitations forced on the enemies by components, for example, locks, dividers, entryways, keys and so forth. As far as frameworks, the security strategy should deliver imperatives identified with capacities and stream among them. Subsequently, imperatives on access by foes and outer frameworks including access to information and projects by un-approved people should be tended to. The correspondence framework ought to be profoundly cutting-edge to forestall unlawful recordings on the associations representatives. This is ensure the associations workers as well as the associations data. This is on the grounds that this being a call-focus business the degree of outside correspondence will must be higher when contrasted with ordinary organizations. To defend the premises just as the worker's physical wellbeing, the HR administrator should arrangement an examining procedure for all individual... In doing this there will be a requirement for all guests to unequivocally, distinguish themselves. What's more, the guests should be given guests passes that can just open entryways in the particular floor they are going. What's more, workers should be given with door passes that plainly distinguish who went where and how. To forestall programming, data, or information robbery all PCs would need to be fitted with biometric mousse. This will constrain the quantity of individuals who can utilize certain workstations. To top this up all representatives ought to be checked for the baggage's they get and out to forestall robbery of office and authoritative apparatuses and data. 3) Parking wellbeing: The stopping framework ought to be with the end goal that it is unmistakably noticeable from the checking focus. Furthermore all vehicles entering the workers leaving ought to be formally enlisted with the security group and what's more all vehicles left either at the representatives leaving or the guests leaving ought to consistently be checked to ensure no undesirable materials are pirated inside the premises. 4) The focal locking framework: The focal locking framework ought to be very much customized to ensure that it gives subtleties of all people still not logged out from their workstations and floors at their alleged time of business conclusion. This will go far in forestalling the activities of specific representatives or guests staying in the workplaces now and again when they shouldn't be there. 5) Localized computerized observing: To guarantee greatest inward and outer observation of the work place, there is have to set up a computerized arrangement of video reconnaissance. This framework should be operational on a

Viral Marketing free essay sample

The formation of advances, for example, PVRs, satellite radio and Internet advertisement blocking programming are driving a crucial move in the manner the general population devours media and the publicizing frequently attached to it. TV promotions, radio spots, online advertisements and even messages are confronting expanding rivalry for adequately catching the viewer’s consideration and give positive ROI to the advertiser. This opposition, combined with the increasing expense of media purchases, has made advertisers scan for an elective way to arrive at the client. Viral showcasing is an alluring arrangement since it uses the free support of the individual instead of acquisition of broad communications to get the message out. Since the conveyance model is free, popular can possibly be lower cost and more successful than customary media. the viral impact More than 90% of customers said they informed at any rate one other individual regarding a Web webpage when the first suggestion originated from a companion, as per Jupiter Research. We will compose a custom exposition test on Viral Marketing or then again any comparative theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page viral promoting favorable circumstances 1. Slices through the messiness of customary publicizing, permitting advertisers to adequately contact the crowd. 2. Doesn’t require an item with a wow factor so as to bring issues to light, produce buzz, and launch shared spread. Rather, the viral campaign’s correspondence specialist is the component that needs a wow factor or component of intrigue. 2. Dissimilar to customary publicizing viral isn't an interruptive method. Rather, popular battles work the Internet to convey presentation by means of distributed underwriting. Viral crusades, regardless of whether eventually preferred or disdained, are frequently invited by the collector. The attention is on battles with material that customers need to invest energy interfacing with and spreading proactively. iral advertising impediments Viral promoting, similar to all showcasing is all in or all out. Be that as it may, viral promoting naturally is frequently more unsafe or disputable than conventional showcasing. Whenever done inappropriately popular promoting can reverse discharge and make negative buzz. Â ©2008 MindComet Corporation

Topics For Essay Writing Competition

Topics For Essay Writing CompetitionThere are several topics for essay writing competition that you should be considering. As you can imagine, these can be a very serious affair and may have consequences for your grade and participation at the end of the competition. As with any course that you take, these topics are very important and you must choose the best ones that will give you the best grade.If you think about it, the easiest way to go about choosing topics for essay writing competition is to follow what your peers are doing. See how they do it, and see if you can write a topic that will help them improve their grades. You can also see how they are finishing the assignment and how you can proceed. You can also ask them to critique your topic. The most important thing that you need to remember is that the best topic for essay writing competition is not always the one that is the easiest to get.I know that it seems that the easiest subjects are often the most difficult to get bu t if you go about it correctly, you can write the topics that are easy to write, easy to read, and that is also good to get an A in the class. When it comes to essay writing, the best subject is always the one that has the most to say about it. That means that if you think that the topic of your paper is very important to your grade, you need to figure out a way to make it the best one you can. Of course, this will require you to be organized and to keep track of all of the information that you want to include in your paper.The first thing that you should do is to contact your local college or university. Many of them will have large seminars where you can express your ideas and have some of the best speakers in the country come to speak to the students on your topic. These seminars will be held in various locations and you will have the chance to talk to some of the top students in the country and get some of the best feedback you can get.Another big part of your homework is going to be writing the essay or research paper. Again, as long as you are organized and have everything that you need, you should be able to finish your essay very quickly. Of course, you need to be able to relate your topic to the class material and the concept that you want to explore is important to any essay that you are taking.As soon as you have completed your paper, you will need to distribute it to others. This can be done as early as the day before you are required to submit your paper. You can simply go over your paper with a friend or two and they can give it to the person who will be judging your paper. The most important thing is that the paper is your best work.After you get all of your feedback, you will need to revise the paper so that it is as close to perfect as possible. That is when you will need to get your assignment graded by the judges. You should submit your essay in the final week of the semester.Remember that what seems easy to you may not be easy to others. So it is important that you consider all of the topics for essay writing competition that you can think of and make sure that you give your best effort. If you get all of your ideas right, you can easily take home a trophy for the best essay of the semester.

Philosophy of Education Essays - 1874 Words

My beliefs and values about early childhood education is based upon understanding that all children are unique individuals who need a caring, nurturing, and secure environment in which to grow and develop socially, emotionally, cognitively, and physically. Children under the age of three are in critical stages of development, it is my belief that a quality child care environment will have a positive impact on a child’s development and make a significant difference in the life of a child and his or her family. My philosophy of early childhood education and the elements I believe are necessary in developing a developmentally appropriate child care environment is rooted in my views and beliefs about experimentalism, progressivism,†¦show more content†¦Progressivism was part of a social and political movement in the United States between 1880 and 1920 (Gutek, 2009). Progressive education coincides with my belief that young children need to interact with their environment to nurture their natural curiosity and creativity. Progressive education allows the teacher to focus on the development of the whole child, which is critical since all developmental domains are interrelated. Children do not learn nor do they develop in isolation; therefore, the learning environment should support learning across all domains. For instance, when a child moves from crawling to walking new experiences open up for the child, their physical ability affects their cognitive ability as they venture out to explore areas of their environment that were limited to crawling. Both experimentalism and progressivism coincide with my belief that young children are active learners. These philosophies support my belief that children are critical thinkers and problem solvers as they actively attempt to make sense of the world through exploration. Furthermore, these types of ideolo gies correspond to my belief that the social and cultural context is relevant to learning. As children attempt to make sense of their world through their individual experience, they begin to notice how aspects of their world are similar as well as different. We live in a very diverse country that continues to grow in diversity every year;Show MoreRelatedMy Teaching Philosophy Of Education880 Words   |  4 PagesAccording to the Education Philosophy test that we took in class, my education philosophy matched with social reconstruction. Social Reconstructionist believes that systems must keep changing to improve human conditions. Also, emphasizes social questions and to create a better society. Social reconstructionist believe that you have to start over to make things better. While going through the PowerPoint that explained what social reconstitution is, in a deeper way, I came to the conclusion that socialRead MorePhilosophy : Philosophy Of Education1328 Words   |  6 Pages Philosophy of Education Jihyae Choe Liberty University TESL 419 â€Æ' Philosophy of Education A good educator decides the direction of teaching based on a resolute educational philosophy. A firm and resolute philosophy does not equate with a fixed perspective, instead it is a strong foundation that can stabilize the life long educational career. In order to establish a firm philosophical basis, passion toward education should accompany proper understanding. Successful educators who establishedRead MorePhilosophy And Philosophy Of Education828 Words   |  4 PagesPhilosophy of Education Teachers, especially those in the early years of school, have the extraordinary task of instilling a life-long love of learning in their students. We are there to cultivate their young minds in an arena where children feel safe and secure while expanding and exploring their knowledge of the world around them. We are to create responsible, productive and model citizens of the world. We are given an incredible task to carry out! With that in mind, however education needsRead MorePhilosophy And Philosophy Of Education1866 Words   |  8 PagesPhilosophy of Education An educational philosophy gives teachers and all educators’ ways to use problem solving in schools. For a lot of practitioners, actual teaching has been reduced to action lacking of a rationale or justification. According to Alan Sadovick, the author of our textbook, a philosophy of education is â€Å"firmly rooted in practice, whereas philosophy, as a discipline, stands on its own with no specific end in mind† (Sadovnik, 2013, pg. 179). All teachers and prospective teachers haveRead MoreThe Philosophy Of Education And Education1175 Words   |  5 Pagesbeliefs is called a philosophy of education. â€Å"A philosophy of education represents answers to questions about the purpose of schooling, a teacher s role, and what should be taught and by what methods† (Philosophy of Education). Educational philosophies differ among all individuals in education. With individual educators, some choose a teacher-centered philosophy and others choose a student-centered philosop hy. It appears that both realms of philosophy play an important role in education inside the typicalRead MoreThe Philosophy Of Education And Education Essay1545 Words   |  7 PagesThe philosophy of education is not a topic that can be fully taught and understood by reading and studying a textbook, or a few textbooks for that matter. I believe that the philosophy of education is somewhat subjective, rather than objective, and that there exists numerous answers to what is the â€Å"philosophy of education†. I feel that one’s answers can not be expressed with a single word nor a sentence; and that one has to â€Å"experience† rather than just read to find the answer. Yes, a huge part ofRead MoreThe Philosophy Of Education And Education1201 Words   |  5 PagesThe philosophy of education seeks to study the process and discipline of education in order to understand how it works, improve its methods and perfect its purposes in today’s society. How this is done is determined by how well the learner internalizes the concepts of the discipline taught by the educator. Educators have a tremendous responsibility not only to prepare students for their lives ahead, but also to contribute to the evolution of knowledge for future generations. Each generation notRead MorePhilosophy Of Education And Education928 Words   |  4 PagesPhilosophy of Education I believe philosophy of education is defined with learning in many ways. In order to reach a certain level of learning there’s recourse along the way that defines the person and goal. John Dewey said â€Å"educational philosophy centers pragmatism and the method of learning by doing.† Purpose of Schooling A hundred years ago the definition and purpose of schooling changed tremendously. There was a point in time where education was very mediocre and a diploma was not requiredRead MorePhilosophy of Education985 Words   |  4 PagesMy Personal Philosophy of Special Education Christina L. Richardson Grand Canyon University: SPE-529N November 18, 2012 My Personal Philosophy of Special Education As educators, we need a foundation for why we want to teach, where students with different disabilities fit in that foundation, a rationale for how we teach, and a principle that keeps us striving to be the best educators we can be. The purpose of this essay is to point out what I believe the foundation, student location, rationaleRead MoreMy Philosophy On The Philosophy Of Education844 Words   |  4 PagesIn mathematics, as in life, everything must be brought to the simplest of terms. I base my teaching philosophy on the foundation that every student is capable of learning mathematics. I will strive, as a teacher, to ensure that my students are able to have a strong foundation of mathematical skills when they leave my classroom. Some students believe that they are not mathematically gifted; therefore, incapable of learning mathematics. I believe to the contrary, all students with motivation, sustained

Effective Parenting For Effective Control Of Juvenile...

EFFECTIVE PARENTING FOR EFFECTIVE CONTROL OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY *Xavier.M**Dr.R.Arjunan Abstract Juvenile delinquency is one of the burning issues all over the world and reform initiatives are going on in many countries. In this study the four parenting styles namely Authoritarian, Authoritative, Neglecting and Permissive parenting styles of the paternal and maternal care-takers of the juvenile delinquents were analysed to find its relation with the self control of the juvenile delinquents. Census method was used in this study as the data had been collected from all the inmates of the eight observation homes of Tamilnadu, India. The binary logistic regression revealed that paternal parenting style predicted the prevalence of Fraud (property offences). On the other hand maternal parenting styles predicted the prevalence of Force (personal offences). All the four parenting styles of paternal and maternal care-takers have a strong relation with the self control of the juvenile delinquents which also indirectly predicts prevalence of the corresponding types of offence. Therefore appropriate parenting by both the care-takers is important to bring about control over juvenile delinquency. Key Words: Parenting styles, Self control and Juvenile delinquency. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ *Ph.D Research Scholar, Department of social work, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu. Email:Show MoreRelatedGender Roles : The Juvenile Justice System1244 Words   |  5 PagesGender Roles in the Juvenile Justice System What role does gender play at the various stages of the juvenile justice system? Gender plays an enormous role in the juvenile justice system; both boys and girls have their fair share of run-ins with the Juvenile Justice System, but now more so than ever, females crime rates have increased. In some instances within the juvenile justice system, it may appear that boys and girls are comparable; however there are differences, even though they are subtle.Read MoreSocial And Social Learning Theory1553 Words   |  7 Pageslearned through associations with others who commit crimes. Juveniles are very impressionable or gullible, wherein they want to be popular or part of the in-crowd or clique. In comparison to the 1970’s versus today, juveniles are emulating criminals depicted on television not just through associations. Consider the current state of technology, specifically the internet and websites such as â€Å"You Tube.† With respect to crime and juvenile delinquents, Y ou Tube is and can be a negative influence. InRead MoreThe Effects Of Delinquency On Children s Life1657 Words   |  7 Pagescommit more crimes than adults, and that if we can reduce the amount of delinquency that occurs in the United States, then we will also reduce the amount of crime. To understand how to prevent delinquency, we must first understand what causes it. Delinquency can be caused by a number of factors involving the child s family, socialization, economic background and drug use. Of course, the earliest contributor to delinquency in a child s life is the family. (1) Early family dysfunction can leadRead More Preventing Juvenile Delinquency Essay2173 Words   |  9 PagesPreventing Juvenile Delinquency There is a saying that history often repeats itself. If this is a true saying, then society will have to deal with the complex issue of juveniles delinquents, who may eventually become adult criminals, as societies in time past dealt with the same conflict. Moreover, if this saying is true then the community in which juvenile delinquencies exist must have the tools necessary to divert the youth from crime. If one is to convert delinquent youth’s behavior, theyRead MoreAdolescence And Adulthood And The Factors That Promote Childhood Delinquency Essay1731 Words   |  7 Pagesa correlate of delinquency is anything that shows itself to have a relationship to delinquency† (Bates Swan, 2014). Our society has always put delinquency in the same category as school systems, but what is commonly overlooked are many other factors that go into the correlation between schools and delinquency. The label of delinquency in schools does not just get slapped on because the justice s ystem is looking for an excuse. There are many articles over adolescent delinquency and less researchRead More Juvenile Delinquency Essay1827 Words   |  8 Pages Juvenile Delinquency There is no doubt that various experts can give us many theories as to the causes of juvenile delinquency, including ones economic background, substance abuse, delinquent peer groups, repeated exposure to violence, increased availability of firearms and media violence. However, I feel that the number one cause of juvenile delinquency is the breakdown of families, including lack of parental control over children. It is ironic in America, today, one must have a drivers licenseRead MoreThe Problem Of Juvenile Delinquency1792 Words   |  8 PagesJUVENILE DELINQUENCY Various experts can give us many theories on the causes of juvenile delinquency, including one s economic background, substance abuse, delinquent peer groups, repeated exposure to violence, increased availability of firearms and media violence, however, I feel that the number one cause of juvenile delinquency is the breakdown of families, including lack of parental control over children. It is ironic in America, today, one must have a driver s license to operate a vehicleRead MoreJuvenile Delinquency Essay1884 Words   |  8 PagesJuvenile Delinquency There is no doubt that various experts can give us many theories as to the causes of juvenile delinquency, including ones economic background, substance abuse, delinquent peer groups, repeated exposure to violence, increased availability of firearms and media violence, however, I feel that the number one cause of juvenile delinquency is the breakdown of families, including lack of parental control over children. It is ironic in America, today, one must have a drivers licenseRead MoreJuvenile Delinquency Essay2064 Words   |  9 PagesJuvenile delinquents, or youth that have been convicted of a crime, seem to be the norm these days. Citizens, families, and poliy makers want new programs and policies within the juvenile justice system. Researchers have found that the family structure can be a precursor to delinquent behavior, and families do not have the control or blance that they once did. As such, mew measures need to be implemented to help these families in crisis. Rehabilitat ion of the family unit is the answer, say manyRead MoreProblem of Juvenile Delinquency1935 Words   |  8 PagesUnit 2 Project Philippe Francois the problem of juvenile Delinquency This paper explains that juvenile delinquency, it will make the argument on how to reduce it and bring light to this problem which is fast becoming one of the largest problems facing urban America. It can lead to law-breaking juvenile, which often can lead to adult lives as career criminals. Over the years experts have given us many theories on the causes of juvenile delinquency, including ones economic background, parents

Philadelphia, the movie. Essay - 890 Words

This movie begins by depicting a bright articulate young lawyer named Andrew Beckett at work. Then the scene rapidly changes to Andrew at an AIDS clinic. You know at this point that Andrew Beckett has AIDS and a horrifying future as you see scenes of men with hollow expressions, open sores and skeleton-like features. It becomes obvious that Andrew was not telling his boss or coworkers that he has AIDS. Later we discover that he concealed this disease because he was afraid of being fired and people’s fear of him as a sick gay man. One night as he is working late, he is called to the Chief Executive’s office. The Chief bestows his confidence and trust in him by giving him the responsibility over a crucial case and announces his promotion as†¦show more content†¦He almost misses the court filing deadline and, just at the last minute, a hardcopy is suddenly found. The next day Andrew is fired for the incident. Just before this court document fiasco, Andrew became very ill and was rushed to the Emergency Room for treatment. His gay partner came into the ER worried. His partner was anxious and sharp with the doctor who threaten to throw him out of the hospital because he was not really a member of Andrew’s family. This angers Andrew’s partner, but Andrew quickly apologized and he is allowed to stay. It was at that moment that Andrew received a phone call from work informing him that the court documents were missing. He left the hospital against the Doctors advise to try and locate the documents. The camera focuses on a very physically depleted Andrew who is seeking legal counsel to sue the law firm that fired him because he believes that he was fired for having AIDS. He believes that his boss deliberately sabotaged the documents to make him look bad so they could fire him for incompetence rather than his illness. Many lawyers turned down his case. He sought help from an African American man named Joseph Miller and Miller turned his request down because he was gay and he was afraid of getting the AIDS virus from Andrew. During the time Andrew was in Miller’s office, Miller’s face was visibly fearfulShow MoreRelatedPhiladelphia Movie Review1571 Words   |  7 PagesPhiladelphia Prepare a critical analysis of the movie Philadelphia (1993). Ensure that you address the following: * Myths and stereotypes about homosexuals and people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) helped to propel his dismissal from the firm? * Prejudice, discrimination, oppression, and institutional discrimination. * Include analysis of any additional issues for gays and lesbians such as legal empowerment, violence against them, coming out, ethnicity, and AIDS. * Suggest strategiesRead MoreEthics in the Movie Philadelphia1992 Words   |  8 PagesETHICS IN PHILADELPHIA MOVIE (1993) In this paper, we are dealing with matters of ethics and profession from a contemporary perspective. Diseases also come in when you look at matters of employment and what the disease can do to someone in a particular profession. From an ethical perspective, one needs to stay honest in what they do. In this case of ours, Andy Beckett is forced to conceal his secrets about his health status and sexual orientation for fear of rebuke and rejection. TheseRead MorePhiladelphia Movie Summary Essays2061 Words   |  9 PagesPhiladelphia - Summary Main characters:  · Andrew Beckett: A handsome, self-assured hotshot law graduate from Penn is on a fast track to partnership at his lawfirm. But hes hiding a dark secret from his self-satisfied employers: hes HIV-positive. When he gets fired while battling AIDS he decides to bring suit. He is warmhearted and cares much for his family who - especially his lover Miguel and his mother Sarah - are extraordinarily supportive during the case.  · Joe Miller: At first hes reluctantRead MoreThe Movie Philadelphia, Released Within The Year 1993 Covers1861 Words   |  8 PagesThe movie Philadelphia, released within the year 1993 covers a lawyer with a passionate and competent feature. A character named as Andrew Beckett, who was affected with the disease of AIDS and once discovered by other partners of the firm, he was subsequently fired from the very firm. Beckett tried a lot to find a suitable lawyer in order to sue his fellow partners working at Wyant Wheeler due to heavy discrimination but he and his proposal were mainly rejected by every single lawyer he tried toRead MoreMovie Review : The Movie, Philadelphia And A Dumb Man Who Experienced Many Important Events Throughout History1700 Words   |  7 PagesTom Hanks once said, â€Å"Sometimes a man just wants the impossible.† In his lifetime, most would agree that Hanks achieved the impossible through his acting career; he personalized many influential movie par ts from a gay lawyer with AIDS in the movie Philadelphia to a dumb man who experienced many important events throughout history in Forrest Gump. This shift in the acting world happened on July 9, 1956 when a star was born. Thomas Jeffrey Hanks was born in Concord, California; his parents names areRead MoreRocky 19761459 Words   |  6 PagesSports films are one of the most common genres in the movie industry. They usually have a simple plot leading to a huge sporting event. There are several different ways to write a sports story: sports, biography, comedy, drama, or even family movies. The 1976 film Rocky is an excellent example of a sports drama. â€Å"A sports drama incorporates dramatic elements into a sports storyline.†1 Rocky is a classic sports-drama. It influenced the film industry through its success, cinematography, andRead MoreMovie Character Presentation889 Words   |  4 PagesMovie Character Presentation Philadelphia Overview of Presentation ï  µ This presentation will focus on Andrew, the main character of the movie, Philadelphia. ï  µ A functional health assessment will be done. ï  µ Two normal and two abnormal health patterns identified. ï  µ A nursing diagnosis with interventions and resources included. Background of Movie and Character ï  µ Andrew is an up and coming lawyer working for a prestigious law firm in Philadelphia. He is a gay man who is HIV+ and hides hisRead MoreAnalysis Of 42 By Brian Helgeland1209 Words   |  5 PagesThe movie, â€Å"42† is by Brian Helgeland with the actors Chadwick Boseman as Jackie Roosevelt Robinson, the first baseball player that’s black to play with white people in the Major Leagues in the modern era. Harrison Ford as Branch Rickey, a Major League executive. Nicole Beharie as Rachel Robinson, Jackie Roosevelt Robinson’s wife. Also, Andre Holland as Wendell Smith a reporter for the Pittsburgh Courier. The movie, â€Å"42† is about a proficient, tough man named Jackie Roosevelt Robinson’s journeyRead MoreThe City Of Brotherly Love996 Words   |  4 PagesPhiladelphia, the â€Å"City of Brotherly Love†, becomes the setting for a high-profile discrimination case in the movie Philadelphia. A successful lawyer named Andrew â€Å"Andy† Beckett (played by Tom Hanks) is fired from his prestigious law firm, because while being given the documents for his next big case, a senior partner at the law firm notices lesions that are a tell-tale sign of the AID’s virus on his face. It becomes up to Andy to defend his title as a successful lawyer against untrue accusationsRead MoreLaw Abiding Citizen ( Movie Summary )1612 Words   |  7 Pagesmake revenge. But, sometimes, like in this movie, one can blame the whole justice system and try to revenge to all people included in it. Law Abiding Citizen is the movie about a man whose developed sociopathic tendencies d rove him into killing while targeting not only his family’s killer but also the all criminal justice system. According to IMDB.com, directed by Felix Gary Gray and rated 7.2 out of 10, this 109 minutes long, 2009 American thriller movie, is classified as R, which means that it is

Contract Law Text - Cases - and Materials

Question: Discuss about the Contract Law for Text, Cases, and Materials. Answer: Introduction Every valid contract should have the element of consideration, which is the benefit that the parties receive by entering into the agreement. Different situations have been provided and it is asked whether consideration is present and if the agreement is enforceable by law. Further a situation has been provided where one party uses pressure tactics to make the other party enter into a business transaction which requires it to make a payment in excess of what was agreed in an earlier contract between them. The party which makes the excess payment takes steps to recover it in the court. It is asked whether the party would be able to recover this amount in the court of law. Consideration is the crucial element to the validity of every contract. It is a type of benefit that each party gets or expects from the deal. It increases the bargaining power of two parties in exchange for return promises and performance of other parties (Miller, 2016). It is very important for every valid contract which is enforceable by law. If there is the absence of any one condition that not satisfies the consideration terms the agreement becomes void. Every valid contract must have consideration. Consideration refers that the one party buys the other party promise with a specific In the given scenario Jane offers her sports car to Jack and the market value is around $25,000 and Jack accepts. As per the terms of the valid contract, the consideration is not taken because as per the Australian court laws consideration refers that the offeror pays money to offeree for goods or services and receives nothing in return. So in the above case, it can be seen that Jane offers her car t o Jack but Jack would not give any price in return to her. So the consideration is not in the contract and it is void by nature. Consideration has some monetary and non-monetary value and it is enforceable by law (Vagts et. al 2015). In the given case it not fulfills the condition of consideration aspect in the agreement because it lacks the promises and benefits conditions in the agreement. Lack of consideration element exists in the agreement between the two parties in the above case. As per the study of this case, it is analyzed that the due to missing aspect of consideration in agreement it is void according to the Australian court and it is not enforceable by the court (Smith et. al 2012). In this scenario, it can be seen that the Jane sells her car to Jake for $25,000.In this situation, consideration is exists in agreement (Latimer, 2012). Because it has a monetary value i.e. $25000.So it is considered as valid consideration between the two parties. Furthermore, the agreement between two parties indicates that there is a mutual benefit to the parties in exchange for promise and price. The mutual consent of two parties with exchange benefits leads to consideration is valid in agreement. In the given scenario contract between Jane and Jack buys and sells the promise and performance with specified price i.e. $25,000 that results in the agreement consideration in present (Kopel, 2012). Similarly, the deal between the Jane and Jack reveals the offer and acceptance conditions with agreed price that makes an agreement enforceable by an Australian court of law. The agreement is valid because it has some monetary value and it is enforceable by the mutual understanding of two parties (Nolo, 2016). Hence this agreement is valid because both the parties perform their actions according to their commitments like selling and buying of activities and consideration exists in the contract and it is valid and enforceable by the law of court (USLegal, 2016). In this scenario, consideration is existing with the mutual consent of two parties but it is an inadequate consideration but the agreement is not void because it has some value and it is bind by the rules and regulations of the contract. In this contract, Jane offers her car to Jack for $2500. But the market value of the car in good condition is $25000. So as per the common laws and regulations of the Australian court this consideration has some specific price or value (Lawstuff, 2016). So it is sufficient consideration due to its monetary value. Apart from the legal part, it is not an adequate consideration because it has very less value like the sale of a car in $2500 instead of $25000.In the given situation Jane and Jack not enters into the agreement with good consideration but according to Australian law, this is enforceable. Hereby, it can be seen that this agreement between two parties does not violate any common laws and policies. It reveals the existence of consideration in t he contract and it is enforceable by federal and state laws of Australia. In addition, it can be seen that this agreement has legal and financial aspects that make the consideration and gives full rights to the party to deny the contract legally (Hart, 2012). According to contract law, an agreement can be unenforceable due to lack of mutual consent of the parties (Weinrib, 2012). So it does not satisfy the conditions of the enforcement of an agreement. As per the analysis of above situation, it can be seen that the agreement between both the parties is not a good offer due to inadequate price. The market value of the car is $25000 but Jane sells the car at $2500 i.e., not an adequate offer that makes the agreement unenforceable. In this case, Jack can use the effective approach to defense to unenforce the agreement (Schwenzer et. al 2012). The effective approach helps in the situation when the consideration is not good. The effective approach helps to reduce the problems in adequate contract. Similarly, it can be analyzed from the above situation that the Australian court of law considers the main aspects in the agreement such as mutual consent of the parties, Offer and acceptance of the parties which is valid and consideration. In the de al of Jack and Jane which is legally right because it follows all the terms and conditions of the contract and follows the law procedures of Australia (McKendrick, 2014). But on the other side of the law, it can be seen that this contract is not enforceable by law due to invalid offer. The given case deals with the situation of duress as provided by the Australian law. More specifically it is about economic duress (Mckendrick and Liu, 2015). As given in the case, North Ocean Tankers had entered into a contract with a shipbuilder. According to this contract, the shipbuilder was to construct a ship for North Ocean Tankers. There was no provision in the contract regarding currency fluctuations. As it happened half way through the building of the ship the United States Of America devalued its currency by ten percent. This obviously meant that the real value of the payment that the ship builder would receive for making the ship for North Ocean Tankers would come down and the ship builder would make a loss in real terms due to devaluation of the United States Of Americas currency. The shipbuilder demanded an extra payment of three million US dollars, if not done so by the North Ocean Tankers, threatened to stop the construction work on the ship. It becomes clear from above that there was a valid contract between the shipbuilder and North Ocean Tankers. A contract is an agreement which is enforceable by law (Paterson, Robertson and Duke, 2012). But the North Ocean Tankers decided to bend to the demands of the shipbuilder as it had a charter to deliver the ship on time to some another organization. So there were economic factors that North Ocean Tankers had to consider and it took the decision to make an additional payment of three million US dollars, although no such requirement was given in the original contract between the shipbuilder and North Ocean Tankers. It becomes clear that the shipbuilder was using pressure tactics against North Ocean Tankers to get the additional payment and the latter bowed to that pressure. The central question in the case is whether North Ocean Tanker would be able to recover the excess payment it made to the shipbuilder in the court of law. According to the Australian law, duress involves use of violence or threat against a person, their goods or economic interest to force them to enter into a contract against their will. In the first type of duress, there is actual or threatened violence to person, family or near relatives. In the second kind of duress, there is wrongful threat to seize, damage or destroy the goods of one of the parties to the contract. The third kind of duress is economic duress where one of the parties applies economic pressure beyond normal acceptable commercial practice. The given case between North Ocean Tanker and the shipbuilder is an instance of economic duress. In this case the shipbuilder has taken advantage of strength of its bargaining position when there was an existing contract, to force North Ocean Tanker to enter into a transaction to provide an excess payment not stipulated in the present contract. In the present case the court would see whether North Ocean Tanker had other options available like getting a ship made by some other shipbuilder. It becomes clear from the details of the given case that North Ocean Tanker had entered into an agreement with some other party to supply the ship. Therefore North Ocean Tanker could not get the ship made by some other party to deliver it on time. Moreover, the shipbuilder was not acting in good faith. The shipbuilder could have made the ship in time but was interested in excess payment. If the shipbuilder had been more careful, it would have provided for the currency fluctuations in the original co ntract. But the shipbuilder failed to do so. Now the shipbuilder was unfairly putting undue pressure and getting excess payments (Mckendrick and Liu, 2015). This is a clear case of economic duress and the court would make the contract between the shipbuilder and North Ocean Tanker voidable by North Ocean Tanker. In these circumstances North Ocean Tanker would be able to recover the excess payment of three million US dollars by the order of the court. There is a really good chance that the court of law would give a judgement in the favour of North Ocean tanker. But the court would also consider why North Ocean Tanker did not rescind the new agreement to provide excess payment to shipbuilder later on and took so long to apply to the court for recovering the additional payment. There is another case Austin V Loral 29 N.Y 2 d 124 (1971) involving economic duress (Miller, 2006). In this case Austin, a small gear part manufacturer supplied parts to Loral, a defense industry supplier. Loral had a contract with the United States Of America Government to supply radar sets used in Vietnam. Austin demanded higher price from Loral under revised terms for gear parts. New York Court of Appeals held Loral agreed to Austin price demands under economic distress. In relation to consumer contracts, section 50 of Australian Consumer law contained in Schedule 2 of the Competition and Consumer Act 2010 (previously section 60 of the Trade Practices Act) provides protection to the party in a contract which has been a subject of duress (Australiancontractlaw, 2016). In another case Electricity Generation Corporation t/as Verve Energy V Woodside Energy Limited (2013) the Western Australian Supreme Court of Appeal held that the essential elements of duress were satisfied (Doylesarbitrationlawyers.com.au, 2016). This case also throws light on the circumstances when the court would decide in a contract that there is case of economic duress (Andrews, 2015). In this case the parties entered into a Gas Sale Agreement under which Woodside was required to supply gas upto a maximum daily quantity to the other party to the contract. Further it was required that Woodside should make reasonable efforts to provide additional amount of gas upto a supplemental daily quantity. As it happened there was an explosion at a gas producing facility of Apache, one of the major suppliers of gas leading to rise in gas prices. Woodside refused to supply additional amount of gas to Verve Energy at the agreed prices and put pressure on the latter to enter into short term gas agreements for the supply of gas at a much higher rates. Verve agreed for the new higher rates. In this case the Australian Court decided that all conditions of economic duress were present. In the cases of pressure tactics used by one of the parties to enter into new agreements, the court would carefully look into the circumstances surrounding the case and then decide whether the pressure is illegitimate or not. The compulsions or economic needs of the party would be carefully analyzed before establishing that it was a case of economic duress (Geest, 2011). Conclusion Consideration is a very important aspect in an agreement. If there is no consideration in an agreement, it is not enforceable by law. An agreement is enforceable by law even if one of the parties feels that the consideration is inadequate. If one of the parties in a contract is in a weak position because of economic aspects of a business situation it is facing elsewhere then sometimes the stronger party in that contract would force the other party to enter into a new agreement to make excess payments which can be considered as an unfair act and a case of economic duress. It is upto the court of law to decide whether the pressure applied by the stronger party is legitimate or not. Sometimes a judgement given by a lower court is contradicted and overturned by the higher court. One court decides that it is a case of economic duress while the other court comes to the decision that it is more a case of non fulfillment of the promise made in the first agreement between the parties. References Andrews, N. (2015). Contract Law. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Australiancontractlaw, (2016). Duress. Available at: https://www.australiancontractlaw.com/law/avoidance-duress.html (Accessed: 16 August 2016). Doylesarbitrationlawyers.com.au, (2016). Electricity Generation Corporation T As Verve Energy V Woodside Energy Ltd WASCA 36. Available at: https://doylesarbitrationlawyers.com.au/news-board/electricity-generation-corporation-t-as-verve-energy-v-woodside-energy-ltd-wasca-36/ (Accessed: 16 August 2016). Geest, G. (2011). Contract Law And Economics: Encyclopedia Of Law And Economics, Volume 6. 2nd (edn.) United Kingdom: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. Hart, H.L.A., Raz, J., Green, L. and Bulloch, P.A. (2012)The concept of law. UK: Oxford University Press. Kopel, S. (2012)Guide to business law.UK: Oxford University Press Southern Africa. Latimer, P. (2012)Australian Business Law 2012. CCH Australia Limited. Lawstuff (2016) What is the difference between criminal law and civil law?[Online].Available at: https://www.lawstuff.org.au/qld_law/topics/being-sued (Accessed by: 16 August 2016) McKendrick, E. (2014)Contract law: text, cases, and materials.UK: Oxford University Press. Mckendrick, E. and Liu, Q. (2015). Contract Law: Australian Edition. United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan Education. Miller, M. (2006). Revisiting Austin V Loral- A Study In Economic Duress, Contract Modification And Framing, Hastings Business Law Journal, 2, pp. 357, [online]. Available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=937372 (Accessed: 16 August 2016). Miller, R.L., (2016)Business Law Today, Comprehensive.USA: Cengage learning. Nolo (2016) Consideration: Every Contract Needs It. [Online].Available at: https://www.nolo.com/legal-encyclopedia/consideration-every-contract-needs-33361.html (Accessed: 16 August 2016) Paterson, J. , Robertson, A. and Duke, A. (2012). Principles Of Contract Law. Australia: Thomson Reuters (Professional). Schwenzer, I., Hachem, P. and Kee, C., 2012.Global sales and contract law.UK: Oxford University Press. Smith, D., Lawson, R.D. and Painter, A.A. (2012)Business law.UK: Routledge. USLegal (2016) Consideration.[Online].Available at: https://contracts.uslegal.com/consideration/ (Accessed: 16 August 2016) Vagts, D.F., Koh, H., Dodge, W.S. and Buxbaum, H.L., (2015)Transnational business problems. USA: West Academic. Weinrib, E.J. (2012)The idea of private law. UK: Oxford University Press.

Archaeology and the Public essays

Archaeology and the Public essays American society throughout the past century has been highly influenced by the continuous and almost predictable routine that the National Graphic Magazine has developed over its hundredth year of publication in 1988. As the credible all-American geographical information database, the National Geographic attempts to create themes idolizing the thrill of seeking historical treasures and remains and at the same time portray the cultural differences that span the globe. Though the times have drastically changed over the past hundred years, the subject matter the National Geographic Magazine uses usually combine a number of the following themes: cultural expansion and transformation, discovery of the unknown, personal ambitions, informational resourcefulness, patronage of American values and democracy, international cooperation, and obviously preservation of historical evidence and treasures of ancient civilizations. In this way, the National Geographic Magazine could be responsible for the manipulation of stories to provide the most interesting and visually stimulating presentation possible. While the primary principle of the magazine is absolute accuracy, the secondary principles pertain to stories featuring only pleasant non-partisan views, and avoid cultural criticism, specifically with information relating to values and religion. The National Geographic Magazine mirrors the path America has taken to reach the point that we are at today. This can be explained for multiple reasons, including the service of political and military figures as directors of the National Geographical society, informational contributions regarding national and international policy, and through sharing the databases of maps and photographs with government sectors. In Joan Geros and Dolores Roots, Public presentations and private concerns: archaeology in the pages of National Geographic the coverage of...

A Profile of the Bonnethead Shark

A Profile of the Bonnethead Shark The bonnethead shark (Sphyrna tiburo), also known as the bonnet shark, bonnet nose shark, and shovelhead shark is one of nine species of hammerhead sharks. These sharks all have a unique hammer or shovel-shaped heads. The bonnethead has a shovel-shaped head with a smooth edge. The head shape of the bonnethead may help it more easily find prey. A 2009 study found that bonnethead sharks have a nearly 360-degree vision and excellent depth perception. These are social sharks that are most often found in groups numbering from 3 up to 15 sharks. More About the Bonnethead Shark Bonnethead sharks are about 2 feet long on average and grow to a maximum length of about 5 feet. Females typically are larger than males. Bonnetheads have a grayish-brown or gray back that often has dark spots and a white underside. These sharks need to swim continuously to supply fresh oxygen to their gills. Classifying the Bonnethead Shark The following is the scientific classification of the bonnethead shark: Kingdom: AnimaliaPhylum: ChordataSubphylum: GnathostomataSuperclass: PiscesClass: ElasmobranchiiSubclass: NeoselachiiInfraclass: SelachiiSuperorder: GaleomorphiOrder: CarcharhiniformesFamily: SphyrnidaeGenus: SphyrnaSpecies: tiburo Habitat and Distribution Bonnethead sharks are found in subtropical waters in the Western Atlantic Ocean from South Carolina to Brazil, in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico and in the Eastern Pacific Ocean from southern California to Ecuador. They live in shallow bays and estuaries. Bonnethead sharks prefer water temperatures over 70  F and make seasonal migrations to warmer waters during the winter months. During these trips, they may travel in large groups of thousands of sharks. As an example of their travels, in the U.S. they are found off the Carolinas and Georgia in the summer, and further south off Florida and in the Gulf of Mexico during the spring, fall and winter. How the Sharks Feed Bonnethead sharks eat primarily crustaceans (especially blue crabs), but will also eat small fish, bivalves, and cephalopods. Bonnetheads feed mostly in the daytime. They swim slowly toward their prey, and then quickly attack the prey, and crush it with their teeth. These sharks have a unique two-phase jaw closing. Instead of biting their prey and stopping once their jaw is closed, bonnetheads continue to bite their prey during their second phase of jaw closing. This increases their ability to specialize in hard prey, like crabs. After their prey is crushed, it is suctioned into the sharks esophagus. Shark Reproduction Bonnethead sharks are found in groups organized by gender as spawning season approaches. These sharks are viviparous... meaning that they give birth to live young in shallow waters after a 4- to 5-month gestation period, which is the shortest known for all sharks. The embryos are nourished by a yolk sac placenta (a yolk sac attached to the mothers uterine wall). During development inside the mother, the uterus becomes separated into compartments that house each embryo and its yolk sac. There are 4 to 16 pups born in each litter. The pups are about 1 foot long and weigh about half a pound when born. Shark Attacks Bonnethead sharks are considered harmless to humans. Conserving Sharks Bonnethead sharks are listed as least concern by the IUCN Red List, which says that they have one of highest population growth rates calculated for sharks and that despite fishing, the species is abundant. These sharks may be caught for display in aquariums and used for human consumption and for making fishmeal. References and Further Information Bester, Cathleen. Bonnethead. Florida Museum of Natural History. Accessed July 4, 2012.Cortà ©s, E. 2005. Sphyrna tiburo. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. Accessed July 3, 2012.Carpenter, K.E. Sphyrna tiburo: Bonnethead. Accessed July 4, 2012.Compagno, L., Dando, M. and S. Fowler. 2005. Sharks of the World. Princeton University Press.Krupa, D. 2002. Why the Hammerhead Sharks Head is In the Shape Its In. American Physiological Society. Accessed June 30, 2012.Viegas, J. 2009. Scalloped Hammerhead and Bonnethead Sharks have 360 Degree Vision. Accessed June 30, 2012.Wilga, C. D. and Motta, P. J. 2000. Durophagy in Sharks: Feeding Mechanics of the Hammerhead Sphyrna tiburo. The Journal of Experimental Biology 203, 2781–2796.

Heat temperature and kinetic energy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Heat temperature and kinetic energy - Essay Example As particles of matter are in constant motion even in the coldest voids of space, there is always a measurable amount of heat energy produced. The continuous movements of the atoms and molecules within the body, where they randomly hit each other produce heat or thermal energy. Heat is also like work. It can never be contained within the body. Instead, it is energy in transit, transferring from one body into another. It can also transmit from the system to its environment or vice versa. Heat in the body can be of two forms: potential and kinetic energy (Smith, Van Ness, Abott, 2001). Heat always travels from a body with high temperature to a lower one. Temperature is the main driving force for heat transfer between bodies. According to (Killam, Daou, n.d ), atoms and molecules don’t travel with the same rate of speed. There is a certain range of energy in molecules that dictates their speed whether slow or fast. Temperature therefore is â€Å"the measure of the average heat o r thermal energy of the particles in a substance†. Temperature is measured through thermometers, using a uniform tube filled with alcohol, mercury or some other fluids. There is a reflected numerical values indicated for the degree of hotness and coldness of a certain object (Smith, Van Ness, Abott, 2001). Heat and temperature is closely related to each other. As observed, the presence of heat makes the temperature rise. However, they are not of the same thing. Heat is the energy produced due to the motion of molecules while temperature is the measurement of the energy produced by the body. Heat is dependent upon the rate of movement of the particles such as the number of particles in motion, their speed, mass and the type of particles within the body. Temperature, on the other hand is independent of these things. Heat caused the temperature to rise and the removal of heat cause the temperature to lower down. Object with higher temperature reveals that the molecules in that bo dy are moving with higher energy. To state it more clearly, â€Å"temperature is not energy, but a measure of it. Heat is energy† (Killam, Daou, n.d). Heat has effects to the body from which it is transferred. A certain body is capable of handling such heat energy. This is referred to as heat capacity. As defined by (Smith, Van Ness, Abott, 2001), the smaller the change in temperature within a body that is caused by the transfer of that given quantity of heat, there is greater capacity for it. There are two kinds of heat capacity that can be applied in homogenous fluids: heat capacity at constant volume and the heat capacity at constant pressure. Every type has certain conditions or properties that must be considered with relevance to their differences in volume and pressure. Heat capacity can also be further divided into three different terms: heat capacity, specific heat capacity and the molar heat capacity. According to Jorgensen (n.d), molar heat capacity is the required energy for one mole of substance to raise 1 degree Celcius. Specific heat is the measurement of energy that can raise a material with a certain mass into a difference of 1 degree in Centigrade. They are both intrinsic properties of a certain substance. They are not dependent on the quantity of material present. Heat capacity on the other hand, is an extensive property of

Project management in creative industries Essay

Project management in creative industries - Essay Example The organization selected for analysis and evaluation belongs to an advertising industry. The Creative Advertising Agency London is a leading organization in the industry located in UK. For successful performance, the Creative Advertising Agency London needs effective project management system which consists of control activities and effective resource allocation in order to achieve overall objectives of the company. The Creative Advertising Agency has a centralized structure. Centralization leads to greater rigidity and more formalized central control. Specialization of task by units results in fragmentation and creates problems in communication and coordination. The greater the degree of specialization, the greater the tendency to concentrate on individual functions while losing sight of overall corporate objectives. Thus, in large advertising agencies conflicts may arise among product group, functional, and territorial managers, even though all are preoccupied with marketing. Despite protesting cries that marketing specialists are "organization men," organizations require routines, programs and procedures, and conformity. Among the factors taken into consideration in answering it are the product line, customers, and processors. Traditionally the Creative Advertising Agency has been hierarchical, with functional groupings based on authority and responsibility. Recently these structural arrange ments have changed. Marketing organizations now include more than sales. Moreover, technology, including computer usage, has led to organizations that have developed along horizontal lines (Burkun 32). Departmental structure helps advertising agencies to deal with complex environment and solve daily problems. Much advertising agencies thought dwell on such concepts as the centralization of business management (Surmanek 88). Customer orientation, in contrast, stresses consumer sovereignty, environmental forces, and

And Still We Rise Essay Essay Example for Free

And Still We Rise Essay Essay It is a unique experience to be rendered completely helpless, to be put completely at the mercy of another human being by force. I have felt complete submission of this kind once in my life; I lay on the cold, wet grass, confused, slowly regaining consciousness after being choked out. As I look back on how I have lived my life over the past couple years, this incident is one of the most influential factors. After being so overpowered by another man, I decided that I could never let this kind of thing happen to me again. I became extremely motivated to lift weights, and to learn wrestling and MMA. This experience changed my expectations for myself and helped me realize that it is in my hands to decide how I am perceived. It was a dispute over nothing. Two guys, driven by a natural instinct to fight, finding an excuse to challenge each other. These two guys were me, a scrawny, 100lb 8th grader, and Collin a well built 22 year old. We were sitting around a bon fire with five other friends, but only six fold-out chairs. Collin suggested tap out to decide who got the last chair, and the next thing I remember is the utterly confused feeling as I regained my senses one by one. It was a full minute before I really knew what had happened: unable to break a choke hold, I had refused to tap out and collapsed unconscious on the ground. It is hard to describe the mix of relief and humiliation that I felt as I walked away from the incident. Even though I trusted and respected Collin, he had just proved my vulnerability and made me realize my lack of confidence. I did not, however, accept my defenselessness and move on. I realized that there was no reason for me to have settled for my skinny pathetic build, and I hit the weights. I started lifting six days a week a friend of mine and within three months, had put on fifteen pounds of muscle. A full year later, I weighed 155 and bench pressed over 200lbs. This incident is also one of the main reasons I started wrestling, a sport that I have grown to love and excel in. To complete my self-improvement plan, I took a few MMA classes and got some sparring equipment and a heavy bag to practice on. Since then, I’ve spent hours in my garage letting my anger out on that bag to staying in wrestling shape. Of course I am no were close to my vision for myself, still only 5’ 8†, and well below my goal of muscular development, but I can see that it is possible. This whole process has taught me that I am I control of my own destiny. Any goal is attainable if you work for it, and what doesn’t kill you makes you stronger. This event was not the only factor contributing to my decision to change, I hated being skinny. It was however an incredible catalyst, giving me a specific reason around which to focus my efforts. It made me realize that you are born with no restrictions. No matter what your natural conditions are, they can be changed and formed to fit your ideals. Furthermore, it’s up to you to change them and the effort you put in will be directly reflected in your outcome. This experience brought to light that, when I have a goal in mind, I am incredibly motivated and focused. It has shown that I can maintain interest in a goal and continually set the bar higher and higher. This experience has changed the way I perceive and carry myself. It has shaped me into someone who is comfortable with their abilities and willing to work to improve themselves. It has shown my ability to let setbacks help me grow and demonstrated my strong self motivation. Ultimately, I am very thankful for Collin and what he did for me, in a sense, being completely helpless has been one of the most empowering situations of my life so far.

Starbucks Essay -- GCSE Business Marketing Coursework

Star Bucks Problem Statement Howard Shultz and the senior management at Starbucks have to decide how to react to the opportunities that are being made available because of their rapid growth. The decision for a strategic growth plan has to be made in the near future. This will prove to be key for Starbucks reaching their long-term goal of becoming the most recognized and respected brand of coffee in the world. Situation Analysis Starbucks is currently the industry leader in specialty coffee. They purchased more high quality coffee beans than anyone else in the world and keep in good standings with the producers to ensure they get the best beans. Getting the best beans is only the first part, Starbucks also has a â€Å"closed loop system† that protects the beans from oxygen immediately after roasting to the time of packaging. They did this through their invention of a one-way valve which let the natural gasses escape but keeping oxygen out. This gave them the unique ability to ensure freshness and extended the shelf life to 26 weeks. Starbucks isn’t only about the coffee, it’s also about a place where people can escape to enjoy music, reflect, read, or just chat. It is a total coffee experience. The retail outlet has been responsible for much of Starbucks growth and has contributed substantially to their brand equity. The Starbucks case doesn’t mention many weaknesses. The main one, however, is their supply chain operations. This hasn’t caused any problems yet but they mention that handling four business units is becoming challenging. They have yet to come up with a long-term solution for such possible problems. As mention earlier Starbucks has many opportunities of which it can take advantage. These include a joint venture with McDonald’s, where the restaurant giant would supply its customers with Starbucks coffee. Another is the bottled Frappuccino product that Pepsi and Starbucks have created. This has had a very positive response in the test markets and posses to be a lucrative option. Starbucks could also look at the vertical integration possibility of producing its own beans. This could prove to be very successful if they can capture a significant amount of the production they could become a price setter in the coffee commodities. Also because small coffee retail outlets are so trendy it is possible for them to set ... ...nal locations in the heaviest coffee drinking countries. This has to be done quickly as to get the jump on other that may also be considering this type of a move. At the same time they should be selling franchise right for the coffee carts. This will provide an increased cash flow as well. During all of this Starbucks should be looking at coffee producers who are in financial trouble or are looking at selling their farms. This has to be done discretely as not to cause unnecessary bad press. After they run a couple of these coffee producing farms for a few years they should be able to see how the whole operation works and determine its viability. Once it’s proven viable they should send out simultaneous offers to the biggest producers as to catch them and other coffee companies off guard. Starbucks also should be getting into the bottled Frappuccino as soon as possible. They should leave the introduction of the product up to Pepsi because of their past experience. They should leave their entry into the grocery store market until some of these other strategies are implemented. This will prove to be the best strategy for Starbucks being able to reach their long-term gaol.

Twilight 19. GOODBYES

19. GOODBYES Charlie was waiting up for me. All the house lights were on. My mind was blank as I tried to think of a way to make him let me go. This wasn't going to be pleasant. Edward pulled up slowly, staying well back from my truck. All three of them were acutely alert, ramrod straight in their seats, listening to every sound of the wood, looking through every shadow, catching every scent, searching for something out of place. The engine cut off, and I sat, motionless, as they continued to listen. â€Å"He's not here,† Edward said tensely. â€Å"Let's go.† Emmett reached over to help me get out of the harness. â€Å"Don't worry, Bella,† he said in a low but cheerful voice, â€Å"we'll take care of things here quickly.† I felt moisture filling up my eyes as I looked at Emmett. I barely knew him, and yet, somehow, not knowing when I would see him again after tonight was anguishing. I knew this was just a faint taste of the goodbyes I would have to survive in the next hour, and the thought made the tears begin to spill. â€Å"Alice, Emmett.† Edward's voice was a command. They slithered soundlessly into the darkness, instantly disappearing. Edward opened my door and took my hand, then drew me into the protecting enclosure of his arm. He walked me swiftly toward the house, eyes always roving through the night. â€Å"Fifteen minutes,† he warned under his breath. â€Å"I can do this.† I sniffled. My tears had given me an inspiration. I stopped on the porch and took hold of his face in my hands. I looked fiercely into his eyes. â€Å"I love you,† I said in a low, intense voice. â€Å"I will always love you, no matter what happens now.† â€Å"Nothing is going to happen to you, Bella,† he said just as fiercely. â€Å"Just follow the plan, okay? Keep Charlie safe for me. He's not going to like me very much after this, and I want to have the chance to apologize later.† â€Å"Get inside, Bella. We have to hurry.† His voice was urgent. â€Å"One more thing,† I whispered passionately. â€Å"Don't listen to another word I say tonight!† He was leaning in, and so all I had to do was stretch up on my toes to kiss his surprised, frozen lips with as much force as I was capable of. Then I turned and kicked the door open. â€Å"Go away, Edward!† I yelled at him, running inside and slamming the door shut in his still-shocked face. â€Å"Bella?† Charlie had been hovering in the living room, and he was already on his feet. â€Å"Leave me alone!† I screamed at him through my tears, which were flowing relentlessly now. I ran up the stairs to my room, throwing the door shut and locking it. I ran to my bed, flinging myself on the floor to retrieve my duffel bag. I reached swiftly between the mattress and box spring to grab the knotted old sock that contained my secret cash hoard. Charlie was pounding on my door. â€Å"Bella, are you okay? What's going on?† His voice was frightened. â€Å"I'm going borne,† I shouted, my voice breaking in the perfect spot. â€Å"Did he hurt you?† His tone edged toward anger. â€Å"No!† I shrieked a few octaves higher. I turned to my dresser, and Edward was already there, silently yanking out armfuls of random clothes, which he proceeded to throw to me. â€Å"Did he break up with you?† Charlie was perplexed. â€Å"No!† I yelled, slightly more breathless as I shoved everything into the bag. Edward threw another drawer's contents at me. The bag was pretty much full now. â€Å"What happened, Bella?† Charlie shouted through the door, pounding again. â€Å"I broke up with him!† I shouted back, jerking on the zipper of my bag. Edward's capable hands pushed mine away and zipped it smoothly. He put the strap carefully over my arm. â€Å"I'll be in the truck – go!† he whispered, and pushed me toward the door. He vanished out the window. I unlocked the door and pushed past Charlie roughly, struggling with my heavy bag as I ran down the stairs. â€Å"What happened?† he yelled. He was right behind me. â€Å"I thought you liked him.† He caught my elbow in the kitchen. Though he was still bewildered, his grip was firm. He spun me around to look at him, and I could see in his face that he had no intention of letting me leave. I could think of only one way to escape, and it involved hurting him so much that I hated myself for even considering it. But I had no time, and I had to keep him safe. I glared up at my father, fresh tears in my eyes for what I was about to do. â€Å"I do like him – that's the problem. I can't do this anymore! I can't put down any more roots here! I don't want to end up trapped in this stupid, boring town like Mom! I'm not going to make the same dumb mistake she did. I hate it – I can't stay here another minute!† His hand dropped from my arm like I'd electrocuted him. I turned away from his shocked, wounded face and headed for the door. â€Å"Bells, you can't leave now. It's nighttime,† he whispered behind me. I didn't turn around. â€Å"I'll sleep in the truck if I get tired.† â€Å"Just wait another week,† he pled, still shell-shocked. â€Å"Ren? ¦e will be back by then.† This completely derailed me. â€Å"What?† Charlie continued eagerly, almost babbling with relief as I hesitated. â€Å"She called while you were out. Things aren't going so well in Florida, and if Phil doesn't get signed by the end of the week, they're going back to Arizona. The assistant coach of the Sidewinders said they might have a spot for another shortstop.† I shook my head, trying to reassemble my now-confused thoughts. Every passing second put Charlie in more danger. â€Å"I have a key,† I muttered, turning the knob. He was too close, one hand extended toward me, his face dazed. I couldn't lose any more time arguing with him. I was going to have to hurt him further. â€Å"Just let me go, Charlie.† I repeated my mother's last words as she'd walked out this same door so many years ago. I said them as angrily as I could manage, and I threw the door open. â€Å"It didn't work out, okay? I really, really hate Forks!† My cruel words did their job – Charlie stayed frozen on the doorstep, stunned, while I ran into the night. I was hideously frightened of the empty yard. I ran wildly for the truck, visualizing a dark shadow behind me. I threw my bag in the bed and wrenched the door open. The key was waiting in the ignition. â€Å"I'll call you tomorrow!† I yelled, wishing more than anything that I could explain everything to him right then, knowing I would never be able to. I gunned the engine and peeled out. Edward reached for my hand. â€Å"Pull over,† he said as the house, and Charlie, disappeared behind us. â€Å"I can drive,† I said through the tears pouring down my cheeks. His long hands unexpectedly gripped my waist, and his foot pushed mine off the gas pedal. He pulled me across his lap, wrenching my hands free of the wheel, and suddenly he was in the driver's seat. The truck didn't swerve an inch. â€Å"You wouldn't be able to find the house,† he explained. Lights flared suddenly behind us. I stared out the back window, eyes wide with horror. â€Å"It's just Alice,† he reassured me. He took my hand again. My mind was filled with the image of Charlie in the doorway. â€Å"The tracker?† â€Å"He heard the end of your performance,† Edward said grimly. â€Å"Charlie?† I asked in dread. â€Å"The tracker followed us. He's running behind us now.† My body went cold. â€Å"Can we outrun him?† â€Å"No.† But he sped up as he spoke. The truck's engine whined in protest. My plan suddenly didn't feel so brilliant anymore. I was staring back at Alice's headlights when the truck shuddered and a dark shadow sprung up outside the window. My bloodcurdling scream lasted a fraction of a second before Edward's hand clamped down on my mouth. â€Å"It's Emmett!† He released my mouth, and wound his arm around my waist. â€Å"It's okay, Bella,† he promised. â€Å"You're going to be safe.† We raced through the quiet town toward the north highway. â€Å"I didn't realize you were still so bored with small-town life,† he said conversationally, and I knew he was trying to distract me. â€Å"It seemed like you were adjusting fairly well – especially recently. Maybe I was just flattering myself that I was making life more interesting for you.† â€Å"I wasn't being nice,† I confessed, ignoring his attempt at diversion, looking down at my knees. â€Å"That was the same thing my mom said when she left him. You could say I was hitting below the belt.† â€Å"Don't worry. He'll forgive you.† He smiled a little, though it didn't touch his eyes. I stared at him desperately, and he saw the naked panic in my eyes. â€Å"Bella, it's going to be all right.† â€Å"But it won't be all right when I'm not with you,† I whispered. â€Å"We'll be together again in a few days,† he said, tightening his arm around me. â€Å"Don't forget that this was your idea.† â€Å"It was the best idea – of course it was mine.† His answering smile was bleak and disappeared immediately. â€Å"Why did this happen?† I asked, my voice catching. â€Å"Why me?† He stared blackly at the road ahead. â€Å"It's my fault – I was a fool to expose you like that.† The rage in his voice was directed internally. â€Å"That's not what I meant,† I insisted. â€Å"I was there, big deal. It didn't bother the other two. Why did this James decide to kill met There're people all over the place, why me?† He hesitated, thinking before he answered. â€Å"I got a good look at his mind tonight,† he began in a low voice. â€Å"I'm not sure if there's anything I could have done to avoid this, once he saw you. It is partially your fault.† His voice was wry. â€Å"If you didn't smell so appallingly luscious, he might not have bothered. But when I defended you†¦ well, that made it a lot worse. He's not used to being thwarted, no matter how insignificant the object. He thinks of himself as a hunter and nothing else. His existence is consumed with tracking, and a challenge is all he asks of life. Suddenly we've presented him with a beautiful challenge – a large clan of strong fighters all bent on protecting the one vulnerable element. You wouldn't believe how euphoric he is now. It's his favorite game, and we've just made it his most exciting game ever.† His tone was full of disgust. He paused a moment. â€Å"But if I had stood by, he would have killed you right then,† he said with hopeless frustration. â€Å"I thought†¦ I didn't smell the same to the others†¦ as I do to you,† I said hesitantly. â€Å"You don't. But that doesn't mean that you aren't still a temptation to every one of them. If you had appealed to the tracker – or any of them – the same way you appeal to me, it would have meant a fight right there.† I shuddered. â€Å"I don't think I have any choice but to kill him now,† he muttered. â€Å"Carlisle won't like it.† I could hear the tires cross the bridge, though I couldn't see the river in the dark. I knew we were getting close. I had to ask him now. â€Å"How can you kill a vampire?† He glanced at me with unreadable eyes and his voice was suddenly harsh. â€Å"The only way to be sure is to tear him to shreds, and then burn the pieces.† â€Å"And the other two will fight with him?† â€Å"The woman will. I'm not sure about Laurent. They don't have a very strong bond – he's only with them for convenience. He was embarrassed by James in the meadow†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"But James and the woman – they'll try to kill you?† I asked, my voice raw. â€Å"Bella, don't you dare waste time worrying about me. Your only concern is keeping yourself safe and – please, please – trying not to be reckless.† â€Å"Is he still following?† â€Å"Yes. He won't attack the house, though. Not tonight.† He turned off onto the invisible drive, with Alice following behind. We drove right up to the house. The lights inside were bright, but they did little to alleviate the blackness of the encroaching forest. Emmett had my door open before the truck was stopped; he pulled me out of the seat, tucked me like a football into his vast chest, and ran me through the door. We burst into the large white room, Edward and Alice at our sides. All of them were there; they were already on their feet at the sound of our approach. Laurent stood in their midst. I could hear low growls rumble deep in Emmett's throat as he set me down next to Edward. â€Å"He's tracking us,† Edward announced, glaring balefully at Laurent. Laurent's face was unhappy. â€Å"I was afraid of that.† Alice danced to Jasper's side and whispered in his ear; her lips quivered with the speed of her silent speech. They flew up the stairs together. Rosalie watched them, and then moved quickly to Emmett's side. Her beautiful eyes were intense and – when they flickered unwillingly to my face – furious. â€Å"What will he do?† Carlisle asked Laurent in chilling tones. â€Å"I'm sorry,† he answered. â€Å"I was afraid, when your boy there defended her, that it would set him off.† â€Å"Can you stop him?† Laurent shook his head. â€Å"Nothing stops James when he gets started.† â€Å"We'll stop him,† Emmett promised. There was no doubt what he meant. â€Å"You can't bring him down. I've never seen anything like him in my three hundred years. He's absolutely lethal. That's why I joined his coven.† His coven, I thought, of course. The show of leadership in the clearing was merely that, a show. Laurent was shaking his head. He glanced at me, perplexed, and back to Carlisle. â€Å"Are you sure it's worth it?† Edward's enraged roar filled the room; Laurent cringed back. Carlisle looked gravely at Laurent. â€Å"I'm afraid you're going to have to make a choice.† Laurent understood. He deliberated for a moment. His eyes took in every face, and finally swept the bright room. â€Å"I'm intrigued by the life you've created here. But I won't get in the middle of this. I bear none of you any enmity, but I won't go up against James. I think I will head north – to that clan in Denali.† He hesitated. â€Å"Don't underestimate James. He's got a brilliant mind and unparalleled senses. He's every bit as comfortable in the human world as you seem to be, and he won't come at you head on†¦ I'm sorry for what's been unleashed here. Truly sorry.† He bowed his head, but I saw him flicker another puzzled look at me. â€Å"Go in peace,† was Carlisle's formal answer. Laurent took another long look around himself, and then he hurried out the door. The silence lasted less than a second. â€Å"How close?† Carlisle looked to Edward. Esme was already moving; her hand touched an inconspicuous keypad on the wall, and with a groan, huge metal shutters began sealing up the glass wall. I gaped. â€Å"About three miles out past the river; he's circling around to meet up with the female.† â€Å"What's the plan?† â€Å"We'll lead him off, and then Jasper and Alice will run her south.† â€Å"And then?† Edward's tone was deadly. â€Å"As soon as Bella is clear, we hunt him.† â€Å"I guess there's no other choice,† Carlisle agreed, his face grim. Edward turned to Rosalie. â€Å"Get her upstairs and trade clothes,† Edward commanded. She stared back at him with livid disbelief. â€Å"Why should I?† she hissed. â€Å"What is she to me? Except a menace – a danger you've chosen to inflict on all of us.† I flinched back from the venom in her voice. â€Å"Rose†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Emmett murmured, putting one hand on her shoulder. She shook it off. But I was watching Edward carefully, knowing his temper, worried about his reaction. He surprised me. He looked away from Rosalie as if she hadn't spoken, as if she didn't exist. â€Å"Esme?† he asked calmly. â€Å"Of course,† Esme murmured. Esme was at my side in half a heartbeat, swinging me up easily into her arms, and dashing up the stairs before I could gasp in shock. â€Å"What are we doing?† I asked breathlessly as she set me down in a dark room somewhere off the second-story hall. â€Å"Trying to confuse the smell. It won't work for long, but it might help get you out.† I could hear her clothes falling to the floor. â€Å"I don't think I'll fit†¦Ã¢â‚¬  I hesitated, but her hands were abruptly pulling my shirt over my head. I quickly stripped my jeans off myself. She handed me something, it felt like a shirt. I struggled to get my arms through the right holes. As soon as I was done she handed me her slacks. I yanked them on, but I couldn't get my feet out; they were too long. She deftly rolled the hems a few times so I could stand. Somehow she was already in my clothes. She pulled me back to the stairs, where Alice stood, a small leather bag in one hand. They each grabbed one of my elbows and half-carried me as they flew down the stairs. It appeared that everything had been settled downstairs in our absence. Edward and Emmett were ready to leave, Emmett carrying a heavy-looking backpack over his shoulder. Carlisle was handing something small to Esme. He turned and handed Alice the same thing – it was a tiny silver cell phone. â€Å"Esme and Rosalie will be taking your truck, Bella,† he told me as he passed. I nodded, glancing warily at Rosalie. She was glowering at Carlisle with a resentful expression. â€Å"Alice, Jasper – take the Mercedes. You'll need the dark tint in the south.† They nodded as well. â€Å"We're taking the Jeep.† I was surprised to see that Carlisle intended to go with Edward. I realized suddenly, with a stab of fear, that they made up the hunting party. â€Å"Alice,† Carlisle asked, â€Å"will they take the bait?† Everyone watched Alice as she closed her eyes and became incredibly still. Finally her eyes opened. â€Å"He'll track you. The woman will follow the truck. We should be able to leave after that.† Her voice was certain. â€Å"Let's go.† Carlisle began to walk toward the kitchen. But Edward was at my side at once. He caught me up in his iron grip, crushing me to him. He seemed unaware of his watching family as he pulled my face to his, lifting my feet off the floor. For the shortest second, his lips were icy and hard against mine. Then it was over. He set me down, still holding my face, his glorious eyes burning into mine. His eyes went blank, curiously dead, as he turned away. And they were gone. We stood there, the others looking away from me as the tears streaked noiselessly down my face. The silent moment dragged on, and then Esme's phone vibrated in her hand. It flashed to her ear. â€Å"Now,† she said. Rosalie stalked out the front door without another glance in my direction, but Esme touched my cheek as she passed. â€Å"Be safe.† Her whisper lingered behind them as they slipped out the door. I heard my truck start thunderously, and then fade away. Jasper and Alice waited. Alice's phone seemed to be at her ear before it buzzed. â€Å"Edward says the woman is on Esme's trail. I'll get the car.† She vanished into the shadows the way Edward had gone. Jasper and I looked at each other. He stood across the length of the entryway from me†¦ being careful. â€Å"You're wrong, you know,† he said quietly. â€Å"What?† I gasped. â€Å"I can feel what you're feeling now – and you are worth it.† â€Å"I'm not,† I mumbled. â€Å"If anything happens to them, it will be for nothing.† â€Å"You're wrong,† he repeated, smiling kindly at me. I heard nothing, but then Alice stepped through the front door and came toward me with her arms held out. â€Å"May I?† she asked. â€Å"You're the first one to ask permission.† I smiled wryly. She lifted me in her slender arms as easily as Emmett had, shielding me protectively, and then we flew out the door, leaving the lights bright behind us.

Managing Multiple Generations in the Workplace - 1075 Words

Managing Multiple Generations in the Workplace Diversity is no new thing in the workplace. Many different factors account for this circumstance in the business arena. Gender, race and ethnicity, and age are a few of the major factors that create diversity within the workplace. The latter, age, is one of the more understated and disregarded issue of diversity. But over time, differences in age in the workplace has been growing more and more, generating conflicts that could not be ignored any longer. The problem of age gaps in the workplace is caused by having multiple generations in one workplace. Most see the age gaps in the workplace as an inherent thing and thus, not something to cope with instead of something to be dealt with.†¦show more content†¦References Academic Global Publications (2005). Generational reward preferences of employees in different cultural contexts. Retrieved June 28, 2007, from http://www.academicglobalpublications.com/example_manuscript.pdf Buckley, R. M., Fedor, D. B., Ferris, G. R. (2002). Human resources management: perspectives, context, functions, and outcomes (4th ed.). New York: Prentice Hall. Carlin, L., Forman, P. (2005). The age of change: Multiple generations in the workforce. We Connect, 2(1). Retrieved June 27, 2006, from http://www.globallead.com/WeConnect/Oct05/ageofchange.html Filipczak, B., Raines, C., Zemke, R. (2000). Generations at work: Managing the clash of Veterans, Boomers, Xers, and Nexters in your workplace. New York: American Management Association Publications. Forbes.Com (n.d.). Young vs. old. Retrieved June 28, 2006, from http://www.forbes.com Frost, P.J., Krefting, L. A., Nord, W. R. (2002). HRM reality. New York: Prentice Hall. Horwath Porter Wigglesworth Limited (2005). Special issue Ââ€" managing multiple generations in the workplace. The Pinnacle, pp. 1-4. Retrieved June27, 2006, from www4.nau.edu/spac/conference2006/ Generations_Workplace.pdf Matuson, R. C. (2006, May 8). 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Hpv vaccines will they prevent cervical cancer - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 33 Words: 9883 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? HPV Vaccines: Will They Prevent Cervical cancer Introduction Human papilloma viruses (HPV) belong to the papillomaviridae family, they are double stranded DNA viruses. HPV is the most common sexually transmitted infection (STI) in the world (Urman et al. 2008). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Hpv vaccines: will they prevent cervical cancer" essay for you Create order HPV is strongly associated with cervical cancer; more than 99% what are the other causes/factors please of cervical cancer cases are positive for HPV DNA and indeed, cervical cancer is the second most common malignancy in the world (Wang et al. 2007). In developed countries the incidence of cervical cancer has been reduced significantly by the introduction of a cervical screening programme. In developing countries where 83% of mortalities due to cervical cancer occur, there are no such programmes (Parkin et al. 2006). Can the introduction of a vaccine against HPV further reduce globally the incidence of cervical cancer? Many diseases caused by viruses are controlled in the developed world by ongoing successful vaccination programmes; Polio, Measles, Mumps and Rubella are a few examples. Smallpox caused by Variola virus was eradicated in 1979 through a successful worldwide vaccination programme. The factors that affect the Polio and MMR vaccine programmes success and those that affected the successful smallpox programme may also be contributory to the success of the HPV vaccination program. Vaccination of HPV is complex and multi factorial. This investigation studies a number of factors including: * Vaccine efficacy * Vaccine Cost/affordability/practicality of administration * Production and Distribution * Government backing and financial commitment * Other support organisations such as the WHO, UNICEF, Gates Foundation, * Social factors * Media effects * Public awareness * Safety, and perceived fears Currently two prophylactic vaccines against HPV types 16 and 18, the most prevalent causes of HPV have been approved by the food and drug administration (FDA). Many developed countries have already introduced vaccination programmes using one of these vaccines. Can the vaccines and programme prevent cervical cancer? In order to effectively understand the implication of such a vaccination programme we must first fully examine the causative agent (HPV) and the consequential potential diseases including the biology, history and prevalence. Human Papillomavirus Approximately 200 types of HPV are identified of which around 40 infect the genital tract (McCance 2004). The majority of HPV types cause no symptoms, some types can cause warts and a minority may lead to cancer. Genital HPVs are transmitted via sexual contact, mainly intercourse, with an infected individual, and the risk of developing an HPV infection generally increases with the number of sexual partners, the sexual history of that partner or the introduction of a new sexual partner. Studies have shown that at least one type of HPV infection occurs soon after sexual debut, with around 30% of women infected with at least one high risk type within two years (Winer et al 2003; Winer et al 2008). HPVs are classified as either high risk or low risk, on the basis of association with cervical cancer. There are 15 types classified as high risk and three as probable high risk. High risk types include 16,18,31,33,35,39,,45,51,52,56,58,59,68,73,probable high risk types include 26,53,66 Low risk types include 6,11,40,42,43,54,61,70,72,81 and CP6108. More than 99% of cervical cancers are associated with HPV, of these 70% are associated with HPV type 16 and 18, with HPV 16 causing 50% and HPV 18 causing more than 15% in Europe (Smith et al..2007). HPV 16 is thus the single, most common high risk HPV. Interestingly HPV types 16 and 18 also cause 80% of anal cancer and 30% of vaginal and why the difference in % oper area research needed here.vulvar cancer and are associated with cancers of the, oropharynx and some rare cancers of the head and neck. (add reference form cervical cancer burden worldwide paper) The majority of HPV infections are asymptomatic, self limiting, and transient, with 70% of new HPV high risk type infections cleared within one year (with the median duration of an infection at 8 months) and 90% within two years (Ho et al 1998). The transient infection usually causes no clinical problems. A small proportion of high risk type infections persist due to host immune evasion, an evasion that results not only from restriction of HPVs to sites that are relatively inaccessible to host defences but also due to several mechanisms of preventing immune response what are these mechanisms please (a sk Dick if this is what he means . This persistence is the most important factor in the development of pre cancerous and cancerous lesions. The time span between infection by HPV and the development of pre cancerous lesions or cervical carcinoma varies from one to ten years (Moscicki et al 2006) and up to 20 years from other sources. HPV show little evidence of dramatic adaptability with phylogenic studies suggesting that the biology of HPVs has remained the same for over 200,000 years (Halpren et al 2000). While HPVs show historically the influence of point mutations, inserts, deletions and duplications, the predominant pattern of mutation within a given type is point mutation, with large scale rearrangements within the most conserved genes of HPVs such as L1 being rare (Myers et al 1996). Intra patient variation within HPV types is uncommon due to their low mutation rate. This low mutation rate is directly linked to the HPV replication strategy that requires host cell machinery, which has stringent proof reading mechanisms that avoid the incorporation of errors, conferring slow mutagenesis. All HPVs exhibit extreme specificity for infection of epithelial cells and do not infect or express their gene products in the underlying dermis. Although the mechanism of infection is not fully understood, the HPV epitheliotrophy resides for the most part in the interaction of specific transcription factors with the viral regulatory region known as the long control region (LCR). Infection with HPV can result in hyperproliferation of the host cell, and with certain high risk HPV types it may lead to transformation and immortalization. This is because high risk HPVs express two or more protein products (E6, E7 and E5) that transiently disrupt the cell cycle and stimulate cell division, knocking out at the same time the cellular mechanisms for growth inhibition. For a productive infection, HPVs require terminally differentiated cells. This HPV biology feature has impeded studies on the full reproduction life cycle because of the lack of highly efficient models of epithelial terminal di fferentiation in vitro. Most of the different stages in the HPV life cycle have been established using genetic engineering and molecular biology strategies. The dsDNA of HPV exists in a non enveloped icosahedral shaped virion 52-55 nm in diameter. The dsDNA genome is circularised and around 8000base pairs in length (Fig1). The genome encodes eight proteins, six early E1, E2, E4, E5, E6, E7, and two late structural proteins L1 and L2 and the previously mentioned noncoding LCR. Fig 1 HPV type 16 Genome structure, gene and functional domain location https://www.dnachip-link.com/Eng/library/HPV.aspusg 15/11/20009 Fig 1 shows the dsDNA genome of HPV type 16, and the location of the early and late genes along with the LCR that contains the origin of replication. An initial infection requires the access of infectious particles to the basal layer of the epithelium. Some HPVs require a break in the stratified epithelium to achieve this. Such breaks are not necessarily obvious and may occur under conditions where the skin is exposed to water or abraded, or subjected to an environment where micro traumas may occur such as possibly in aswiming pool or ect (must put an example)(in fig 2 shows as a cut). Following infection and uncoating it is thought that the virus maintains its genome as an episome in low copy numbers within basal cells of the epithelium. Although the pattern of gene expression in these cells is not well understood, it is generally thought that viral proteins E1 and E2 are expressed to maintain the viral DNA episome (Wilson et al.2002) and possibly to facilitate the segregation of genomes during cell division (You et all.2004). It is not known whether viral transformation proteins E6 and E7 are also expressed in the basal layer, but it does appear that initial infection is followed by a proliferative phase that results in the increase in the number of basal cells harbouring viral episomes. In normal uninfected epithelium, basal cells leave the cell cycle soon after migration into the superbasal cell layers where they undergo a process of terminal differentiation. During infection E6 and E7 are expressed in these cells stopping normal differentiation (Sherman et all.1997). E6 and E7 are believed to work together to achieve this and in lesions caused by high risk HPV types. During a natural infection the ability of E7 to stimulate S-phase progression is limited to a subset of differentiated cells with low levels of p21/p27, or which express high enough levels of E7 to overcome the block in S-phase entry. The viral E6 protein is thought to prevent apoptosis in response to unscheduled S-phase entry brought on by E7. The association of E6 with p53 and the inactivation of p53 mediated growth suppression and apoptosis is well documented, E6 may also associate with other pro-apoptotic proteins including bak (Thomas and Banks,1998) and bax (Li and Dou,2000). E6 is thus considered a predisposing factor in the development of HPV associated cancers, allowing the accumulation of chance errors in host DNA to go unchecked. Furthermore the E6 protein of high risk HPVs can stimulate cell proliferation independently of E7 via a c-terminal PDZ ligand binding domain. E6 PDZ is enough to mediate superbasal cell proliferation and may contribute to the formation of metastatic tumours by disrupting normal cell adhesion (Nguyen et al.2003) Amplification of the viral genome and the ability to package these genomes into infectious particles is essential for the production of infectious virions. For most HPV types this occurs in the mid or upper epithelial layers following an increase in activity of the late promoter. The late promoter gene is located within the E7 open reading frame, and the upregulation of the late promoter is thought to lead to increased expression of proteins involved in viral DNA replication, without directly affecting the expression of E6 or E7 necessary for S-phase entry. The amplification of the viral genome begins in a subset of cells in the proliferative compartment and requires the expression of all viral early gene products, these include E4 and E5 whose role in replication is not yet clearly understood. Binding of E2 to the HPV upstream regulator region is essential for viral DNA replication that is dependent on the differentiated state of epithelial cells. E2 recruits the E1 DNA helicase to the viral origin of replication. Throughout the virus life cycle, the relative levels of viral proteins are controlled by promoter usage and by differential splice site selection, with an increase in E1 and E2 allowing an increase in viral copy numbers in the upper epithelial layers. Current models suggest that a small increase in promoter activation during differentiation may lead to an increase in the level of E1 and E2 and a subsequent increase in genome copy number. The newly replicated genome could then serve as a further template for expression of E1 and E2, facilitating the amplification of viral genome and in turn further expression of E1 and E2 replication proteins. Viral DNA remains latent (not integrated) in basal cells of benign lesions. Replication occurs in the differentiating cells where capsid proteins and viral particles are found. Viral DNA is integrated in cancer cells, which contain no replicating virus. Once viral genome replication is completed, the expression of two virally encoded structural proteins, expressed in the upper layers of infected epithelia may occur. L1 the major capsid protein is expressed after L2 in a sub set of cells that express E4 (fig 2), this allows the assembly of infectious particles in the upper layers of the epithelium (Florin et al.,2002). A successful infection requires the virus to escape from the infected skin cell and survive extracellularly prior to re-infection. HPVs are non-lytic and are as such not released until the infected cells reach the epithelial surface. The intracellular retention of HPV antigen until the cell reaches the uppermost epithelial layers may contribute the compromised immune detection, especially as the virus has molecular mechanisms that limit the presentation of viral epitopes to the immune system in the lower epithelial layers (Ashrafi et al 2002). What are these mechanisms Figure 2 Papillomavirus type 16 Life Cycle and gene expression location within epithelium Taken from, The papillomavirus life cycle by John Doorbar published in the journal of clinical virology 32S (2005) S7-S15 Figure 2 diagrammatic representation of the skin with HPV type 16 gene expression incorporated, colour of arrows are representative of genes expressed within epithelial cells. The frequent detection of high risk HPV DNA in cervical lesions in the absence of any obvious disease, may be explained by the presence of the virus in a latent state, with only very few cells able to support the productive virus life cycle during epithelial cell differentiation. Following immune regression, HPV DNA is thought to remain in the basal epithelial cells waiting to be reactivated once levels of immune surveillance decline there are conflicting opinions (Zhang et al.1999). If regression is not achieved lesions may persist and in some instances progress to cancer. The number of lesion that progress to cancer is very low when compared to the prevalence of high risk HPV infection in the general public. The Progression of productive lesion to high grade lesions may result from the deregulation ( what happen to allow thes proteins to be deregulated intergrattion loss of E2 adn p53 association, be specific add biochemistry here please. in the expression of transforming proteins E6 and E7. The inability of a cell to support the whole virus life cycle is often associated with the development of cancerous lesions. The transformation zone (Fig 3) is particularly susceptible to cervical cancer; it appears that high risk types of HPV such as type 16 cannot complete their life cycle at this site Progression from CIN3 to cancer usually occurs in lesions that contain integrated copies of the viral genome in which E7 expression is elevated. Suggesting that retention of E6 and E7genes and the loss of E2 and E4 genes (that exert negative effect on cell growth) usually accompanies the development of invasive cancer. (reference) Remember for CIN refer to in that section or here but Cin must be corrulated with what causes the cancer and with whats happening with the virus that causes the change in CIN or the causes in CIN to occur. Cervical cancerisa considerable contributor to morbidity and mortality. Being the second most common cancer worldwide and the twelfth most common cancer in women in the UK. Cervical cancer in 2002 was the cause of 274,000 deaths worldwide (the most current data available)REF THIS FIGURE and continues to causes more than 1000 deaths in the UK each year. There are two main types of cervical cancer squamous cell cancer (the most common) and adenocarcinoma, although they are often mixed. They are named after the types of cell that become cancerous through neoplasia. Squamous cells are flat cells covering the cervix; adenomatous cells are found in the passageway from the cervix to the womb. Other rarer cancers of the cervix include small cell cancer. Deaths from cervical cancer in the UK have fallen over the last 20 years mainly because of the NHS cervical screening programme that reduced the mortality rates by 62% between 1987-2006. Screening may detect changes in the cells of the cervix at a pre-cancerous stage. Fig 3 TITTLE Showing location of transformation zone. Cell samples are examined for abnormalities, these abnormality are described in a standard format covering cytology and/or histology. What are these standard format CIN 1 CIN2 CIN3 LISL LGSIL HSIL HGSIL USE FIG 4 and explain whats happening with the proteins expressed and genome intergration where CIN number progression is concerned please. MUST DO From Lowy Schiller, J Clin Invest, 116:1167-73, 2006 Low grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL or LGSIL) indicates possiblecone biopsy, or laser ablation. High grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL or HGSIL) indicates moderate or severeCIN 2 or CIN3 (fig 3). While cervical screening has reduced the mortality significantly in the developed world cervical cancer is still a significant burden worldwide. Fig 4 Taken from, The popillomavirus life cycle by John Doorbar published in the journal of clinical virology 32S (2005) S7-S15 Fig. 5. CIN 1 resembles productive infections caused by other HPV types and as such is the most benign form of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia , it is confined to the basal 1/3 of the epithelium, CIN 2 Moderate dysplasia confined to the basal 2/3 of the epithelium,CIN3 Sever dysplasia that spans more than 2/3 of the epithelium, and may involve the full thickness. INCIDENCE An estimated 493,000 new cases and 274,000 deaths in 2002 were caused by cervical cancer. The vast majority, some 83% of these cases, occur in developing countries, where cervical cancer amounts to 15% of female cancers with a risk before age 65 of 1.5%. In developed countries cervical cancer accounts for only 3.6%, with a risk of 0.8% before age 65. REF The highest incidence rates are observed in Sub-Saharan Africa, Melanesia, Latin America and the Caribbean, South-Central Asia, and South East Asia (fig 6) Fig 6 Worldwide Burden of HPV related Cervical Cancer Figures from 2002. Parkin MD et al 2006 The burden of HPV-related cervical cancers The vast majority of cervical cancers are squamous cell carcinoma adenocarcinomas being less common (fig 6). Generally the proportion of adenocarcinoma cases is higher in areas with low incidence of cervical cancer, accounting for up to 25% of cases in western countries (fig 6). This higher incidence of adenocarcinoma may be partially explained by cytological screening, which historically, had little effect in reducing the risk of adenocarcinoma of the cervix, because these cancers, and their precursors, occur within the cervical canal, and were not readily sampled by scraping of the epithelium of the ectocervix. Fig 5 Fig 5 showing the higher % of adenocarcinoma in counties that have screening programmes such as the UK and Denmark What is this showing? Make it clear.do you really need it. MORTALITY RATES Mortality rates are substantially lower than incidence rates. Worldwide 55% (could you double chek that this is the case please misses) of all those that develop the disease die, the figures vary significantly from the developed to the developing world. Low risk regions of the west such as Europe have a death rate of 37% while in developing countries where many cases present at relatively advanced stages, death rates are significantly higher increasing to 70%. Cervical screening programmes in the developed world identify pre-cancerous lesions at a stage where they can be easily treated accounting for the difference in mortality rates. TITTLE IF and figure number staying and refer to in text As cervical cancer affects a relatively high number of young women, it is a significant cause of years of life lost (YLL) in the developing world. Yang et al 2004 found that cervical cancer was responsible for the 2.7 million (age weighted) years of lives lost world wide in 2000, and that it is the single biggest cause of years of life lost from cancer in the developing world. In Latin America, Eastern Europe and the Caribbean, cervical cancer makes a greater contribution to YLL than disease such as Tuberculosis or AIDS. HPV is also associated with many other forms of cancer that could possibly be prevented with use of HPV vaccines; cancers of the penis, anus, vulva, vagina, oropharynx and some rare cancers of the head and neck are included. However cancer of the cervix is by far the most significant, in terms of incidence and mortality (table 1). Cancer of the vulva and vagina have a significantly lower incidence rate compared to cervical cancer, however since 80% of the incidence are caused by HPV types 16 or 18 women vaccinated against these types would also be protected against these forms of cancer. Incidence of squamous cell carcinoma of the anus are twice as common in females as males with HPV types 16 and 18 accounting for 83% of all cases. There is a particularly high incidence of anal cancer among homosexual males, shown by the high incidence rate in populations such as Sanfransisco, where gay incidence are higher than average (fig 7). Globally cancer of the penis is relatively rare accounting for 0.5% of cancers in men (table 1). HPV DNA is detectable in 40-50% of all penile cancers and serological studies have confirmed the role of HPV 16 and 18 (IARC 2005). Cancers of the mouth and oropharynx caused by HPV are very low at 0.06% of all cancers with 0.05% being caused by HPV types 16/18. Due to the small size of most studies and the absence of comparable measurements of prevalence of infection in normal subjects conducted for cancers of the vulva, vagina, penis and anus true prevalence is difficult to quantify. The figures shown in table 1, imply that we are dealing with a virus that discriminates primarily through disease aginst women, in particular young women. Gay men, however are also clearly an at risk group. Currently only young women are vaccinated aginst HPV types 16 and 18, however the JCVI (joint committee on vaccination and immunisation) have noted that the vaccines has not been conclusively trialled on men, and that there is insufficient evidence that the vaccine available would protect against anal, penile or head and neck cancer. However when more data becomes available they will consider vaccinating, high risk groups such as men who have sex with men. Add what this implies for prophylactic use of vaccine with other cancers cause by HPV And what you think about the ue of vaccine on highrisk men and its effectivity against other cancers caused by HPV types 16 and 18. Fig 7 TITTLE add Figure 6 showing that cancer of the anus are more prevalent in women than men with the major noted exception being San Francisco, where the increased incidence can be explained by a large number of homosexual men. HPV INFECTION-ATTRIBUTABLE CANCER IN 2002: BY SEX AND HPV TYPE Table 1 MALES SITE ATTRIBUTABEL TO HPV % OF WHICH HPV TYPES 16 AND/OR 18 % TOTAL CANCERS ATTRIBUTABLE TO HPV ATTRIBUTABLE TO HPV THYPES 16/18 CERVIX 100 70 0 0 0 PENIS 40 63 26,300 10,500 6600 VULVA/VAGINA 40 80 0 0 0 ANUS 90 92 14,500 13,000 12,000 MOUTH 3 95 175,900 5200 5000 OROPHARYNX 12 89 42,500 5100 4500 ALLL SITES 5,801,800 33,900 28,100 Table 2 FEMALES SITE ATTRIBUTABEL TO HPV % OF WHICH HPV TYPES 16 AND/OR 18 % TOTAL CANCERS ATTRIBUTABLE TO HPV ATTRIBUTABLE TO HPV THYPES 16/18 CERVIX 100 70 492,800 492,800 344,900 PENIS 40 63 0 0 0 VULVA/VAGINA 40 80 40,000 16,000 12,800 ANUS 90 92 15,900 14,300 13,100 MOUTH 3 95 98,400 2,900 2,800 OROPHARYNX 12 89 9,600 1,100 1,000 ALLL SITES 5,060,700 527,200 374,700 Table 3 BOTH SEXES TOTAL CANCERS ATTRIBUTABLE TO HPV % OF ALL CANCERS ATTRIBUTABLE TO HPV TYPES 16/18 % OF ALL CANCERS 492,800 492,800 4.54 344,900 3.18 26,300 10,500 0.10 6600 0.06 40,000 16,000 0.15 12,800 0.12 30,400 27,300 0.25 25,100 0.23 274,300 8,200 0.08 7,800 0.07 52,100 6,200 0.06 5,500 0.05 10,862,500 561,100 5.17 402,900 3.71 VACCINATION An effective vaccine should stimulate a suitable range of immune responses, mimic or improve on the protection gained from a wild type infection with little side effects. Critically the vaccine should be inexpensive, easily administered, transported and stored to further reduce cost and maximise convenience, this is especially relevant in the case of HPV vaccine as those that are not protected by the screening programmes of the developed world would benefit the most, ease of administration and storage is paramount in the developing world as stability and healthcare is more sporadic, and people are often more remote. There are many different kinds of vaccines available, and different vaccines have a variety qualities and limitations. Live attenuated vaccines contain a version of the pathogenic microbe that is avirulent, they often elicit an excellent cellular and antibody response with good longevity that can be lifelong with few doses. However there is always the possibility that the vaccine may revert to its virulent form, causing disease. For this reason a live attenuated vaccine is not appropriate for use against oncogenic HPV types. Recombinant vaccines can include one or more proteins that may illicit an immune response. A process has been developed to allow the removal of the genome from an attenuated or avirulent viral vector allowing the insertion of selected genetic material or proteins from another virus. The carrier viruses then ferry that viral DNA into host cells where the genes are expressed. Recombinant vaccines closely mimic a natural infection and therefore illicit a strong immune system. Inactivated vaccines are produced by killing the disease causing microbe by chemical (formaldehyde eg just double check), heat or radioactive means. These vaccines are more stable than live vaccines, and as there is no risk of reversion to virulence. They are also safer than live vaccines. Most inactivated vaccines stimulate a weaker immune response than live vaccines and several doses or boosters may be required to maintain immunity. DNA vaccines dispense with both the whole organism and its parts. They only include the essential part of the microbes genetic material. In particular, DNA vaccines use the genes that code for immunogens. Researchers have found that when the genes for a microbes antigens are introduced into the body, some cells will take up that DNA. The DNA then instructs those cells to make the antigen molecules. The cells secrete the antigens and display them on their surfaces. In other words, the bodys own cells become vaccine-making factories, creating the antigens necessary to stimulate the immune system. A DNA vaccine against a microbe would evoke a strong antibody response to the free antigen secreted by cells, and also stimulate a strong cellular response against the microbial antigens displayed on cell surfaces. The DNA vaccine is unable to cause disease because it does not contain the microbe, only copies of a few of its genes. In addition, DNA vaccines are relatively easy and inexpensive to design and produce. It is likely that several doses or boosters would be required to maintain immunity. DNA vaccine are still in development and currently no one are licensed for use although they show great promisedouble check please. A subunit vaccine includes only the antigens that best stimulate the immune system. In some cases the vaccine uses epitopes. Subunit vaccines do not contain whole microbes or genetic information, reducing the chances of an adverse response significantly. Sub unit vaccines may include several antigens. In the case of Cervarix two different subunits are included, and in the case of Gardasil four different subunits are included. Identifying which antigen best stimulates the immune system can be problematic, once achieved subunit vaccine can be, made in one of 2 ways: 1)The microbe can be grown in the lab to high titres; chemicals (what chemicals)are used to break the microbe apart allowing the gathering of the relevant antigen. 2)Antigen molecules can be manufactured form the microbe using recombinant DNA technology. Vaccines produced in this way are called recombinant subunit vaccines Both Cervarix and Gardasil are recombinant subunit vaccines. WHAT are VLPs discuss these please And the process of making Cervarix and Gardasil Biochemical detail to include explanation of bacalovirus system and wehat genes they insert and how they do it. Full explanation please misses x x VACCINE USE Insert table of available vaccines There are several examples of diseases that have been controlled through successful vaccination programs (table 2) , the most successful and the only disease to have been eradicated is smallpox. Table 2 TITTLE Virus Administered Attenuated Inactivated Recombinant/Sub-unit Hepatitis A im X Hepatitis B im/sc X Influenza im X Japanese Bencephalitis sc X Measles, Mumps, Rubella (MMR) im X Poliovirus o/im X X Rabies im X (X) Smallpox sc X Tick-borne encephalitis im X Varicella-Zoster im X Yellow fever sc X Papilloma virus (16,18) im X Rotavirus oral X Refferncve source is DIDcks lectures can I really do this The vaccine for smallpox is a live virus preparation of vaccinia virus. The antibodies produced by/against vaccinia are cross reactive for smallpox. Vaccinia virus infection is very mild and is typically asymptomatic in healthy individuals check ther are someside effects. Live vaccinia virus vaccine can not cause small pox infections as it does not contain small pox DNA, so the risk that comes with a live attenuated vaccine does not apply here as the vaccine cannot revert to virulence. Estimated vaccine cost per vaccination in developing countries was 10 cents per vaccination, this very low cost allowed worldwide access. Freeze dried vaccine was mass produced in many countries reducing the risk of vaccine shortages, and the potency and stability of the vaccine was essential in the success of the programme. Novel administration techniques helped drive down the cost and expertise required; development of a new type of needle that could be reused after boiling contributed significantly. Success of the small pox eradication programme was also related to political commitment and leadership in the form of the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the Centres for Disease Control (CDC). Organisation of people on the ground by the WHO maintained motivation and focus, with small numbers of highly committed knowledgeable people, able to motivate large numbers of staff successfully, even in unstable areas and the poorest countries. This would have been more of a challenge without the backing received from many governments. Fig 8 TITTLE PLEASE When eliminated from more developed countries, public awareness was a key factor, with posters (fig 8) and leaflets used to educate the public about the dangers of small pox and encourage them to take up the vaccine. A combination of good science, outstanding organisation, focused monitoring, international commitment through governments, the WHO and CDC, coupled with high public awareness and low cost, easy administration of the vaccine was critical in the success of the smallpox eradication programme. There are elements directly linked to the smallpox virus that also helped in the eradication. Could say this bit in red more scientificallySmallpox has no zoonotic reservoir and as such only needed to be eradicated from humans to completely eradicate the disease. There is also only one strain of the virus that mutates very slowly, giving us the opportunity to succeed with the eradication before significant mutagenesis could occur. POLIO The introduction of a polio vaccine reduced the worldwide incidence of polio from an estimated 350,000 cases in 1988 to 1,652 cases in 2007. There are two vaccines used against polio, an oral live attenuated vaccine and an inactivated vaccine administer intramuscularly. The oral vaccine is easy and cheap to administered, an oral polio vaccine (OPV) is also advantageous in this case, as the virus replicates primarily in the gut, mimicking a true infection successfully. The attenuated strain of the vaccine may also be transmitted from person to person within the community providing wider protection than just those vaccinated. In regions without wildtype poliovirus, inactivated polio vaccine is the vaccine of choice. In regions with higher incidence of polio, and thus a different relative risk between efficacy and reversion of the vaccine to a virulent form, live vaccine is still used. The live virus also has stringent requirements for transport and storage which are a problem in some hot or remote areas. As with other live-virus vaccines, immunity initiated by OPV is likely to be lifelong. Is POLIO vaccine expensive? Poliovirus has no zoonotic reservoir and survival of the virus in the environment for an extended period of time is remote. Therefore similarly to smallpox, interruption of person-to person transmission of the virus by vaccination is the critical step in global polio eradication. These two vaccines and the implementation of their programmes haveeradicated poliofrom most previously endemic countries of the world. Public awareness was raised by poster, leaflets, radio, television and personal appearance of the character Well bee (fig 9) at public events in the United States. Fig 9 Public awareness poster for Polio Vaccination https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Polio_vaccine_poster.jpg Fig 9 poster of the CDC Well bee used in the US in the 1960s to raise public awareness of the polio vaccine The WHO in conjunction with UNICEF are hoping to eradicate polio as they did with smallpox, their campaign is ongoing. Only a handful of endemic countries remain; Afghanistan, India, Nigeria and Pakistan. The proposed deadline for eradication has been revised on a number of occasions due to financial and logistical issues surrounding the task. Measles Mumps Rubella (MMR) The MMR vaccination is given as part of the government immunisation programme in the UK. The MMR vaccine is a live attenuated vaccine that protects against Measles Mumps and Rubella. The fact that the vaccine is a combination vaccine means reduced administration costs. Even though the vaccine is given in the UK as a matter of course to children, when concerns surrounding its safety were raised and claims of connections between the vaccine and autism were made, a significant impact was seen on the uptake rate of the vaccine. In turn this meant increased incidence disease especially where measles is concerned. MMR is a good example of how a vaccination programme can be hit hard due to the public perception of risk and safety, even when the cost of vaccine and administration is low, government support and strategy of administration is well established, and efficacy of vaccine is high. There are posters and leaflets available for information on the safety and efficacy of the MMR vaccine. However it may take a significant amount of time to restore public faith in the MMR vaccine. Unfortunately the perceived safety of all vaccines can be adversely affected by media coverage, whether they are based on founded or unfounded data. THE VACCINES Insert introductory paragraph about why we need teh vaccine all you have said so far Is teh evidence for this. Must also describe The way in which they produce the vaccine background to development must also be included. Plenty of data on both Cervarix and Gardasil on your desk topo including info about how its made and the clinical trials and production of the vaccine C and P According to WHO, there were 510000 cases of cervical cancer in the world resulting in 288000 deaths each year. India has a higher burden with 130000 new cases and 75000 deaths each year due to cervical cancer. India has 25% of the global cervical cervical cancer burden by number of patients and deaths. Recent CDC data indicates that over 20 million Americans are already infected with human papilloma virus and 6.2 million new cases are detected every year. Each year 11000 cases of cervical cancer resulting in 4000 deaths in the US. Over 70 % of cervical cancer is caused by 2 strains of HPV 16 and 18 and 90% of anogenital warts are caused by 2 strains of HPV, 6 and 11, all four of these strains can be prevented by a quadrivalent vaccine Gardasil. About 1% of sexually active men have genital warts and over 10,000 women develop other types of genitalcancer due toHPV infectionseach year. Genital contact favors HPV transmission and spreads infection. In most of the cases (70-90%)our immun e system can overcome HPV infection and eliminate infected cells. Herald zur Hausen in Heidelberg during the 1977-1980 period, first isolated the HPV type 6 in human genital warts and later detected the presence of HPV 16 in 50% of cervical cancer cells and HPV 18 in 17-20% of cancer cells. The advent of PCR resulted in rapid detection of the HPV types in cervical cancer and so far over 106 types of viruses have been described. A pharmaceutical company turned down zur Hausen request to develop a vaccine in 1984. It was only in 1991 that the idea of HP virus as a leading cause of cervical vaccine was accepted and industry started development of HPV vaccine. The Nobel Laureate in his recent lectures has mentioned 500000 deaths per year from cervical cancer and 21% of global cancer burden due to chronic infections. https://knol.google.com/k/cervarix-glaxo-smith-kline-vaccine-for-cervical-cancer# Cervarix produced by Glaxo Smith Kline (GSK) and Gardasil produced by Merck are the two currently approved vaccines. Both are recombinant subunit vaccines made from the major capsid protein L1. Cervarix is a bivalent vaccine that targets HPV 16 and HPV 18 collectively responsible for 70% of cervical cancers. Gardasil is a Quadrivalent vaccine that targets HPV 16 and HPV 18, plus HPV type 6 and 11 responsible for more than 80% of genital warts. Both vaccines have been shown to be effective in preventing persistent infection with the targeted HPV types and in preventing cervical intraepithelial lesions. Virus like particles that form from the recombinant L1 protein mimic the native virus structure, but contain none of the viral DNA, meaning they cant infect cells or replicate within them. NOT enough information here refer to above HPV vaccines are highly effective; in clinical trials both Cervarix and Gardasil were over 99% effective at preventing pre cancerous and cancerous lesions caused by types 16/18 in young women (Harper et al 2006). How do we know how effective they are, how were they measured clinical trial information is on your desktop use this please. Both vaccines prevent infection by generating neutralizing antibodies against L1, blocking incidence infection. The vaccines use different adjuvants; Cervarix uses a new type of adjuvant, which GSK believes enhances its effectiveness, while Gardasil uses a more conventional adjuvant. Mention different adjuvants and different imunnogenicity as a result in your fuller explanation of the vaccines and their composition how they are made and their efficacy please my lovely. Both vaccines are very effective at protecting from incident infection with types 16 and 18. Although research funded by Gsk showed in a head to head trial that included more than 1100 women aged 18-45 that women who receive Cervarix had higher levels of antibodies than those receiving Gardasil 1 month after the final dose. Type 16 showed that levels induced by Cervarix were twice as high as Gardasil and for type 18 were more than 6 times higher. GSK claim that the new type of adjuvant used in their vaccine is partially responsible for the enhanced immune response. Several studies conducted with Cervarix showed more than 90% efficacy against incident infection (Harper.D.M et al 2004), (Harper.D.M et al 2006),100% efficacy against persistent infection (Harper.D.M et al 2004 )(Harper.D.M et al 2006), and 90.4% to 100% efficacy against HPV types 16 and 18 related CIN (Harper.D.M et al 2006).The vaccine was shown to be highly immunogenic with more than 98% seropositivity after 4.5 years (Harper.D.M et al 2006) now extended by Gsk to 7.3 years of sustained protection in women aged 15-25. Cross protection against incident infection with high risk HPV types 45 and 31 (types 16/18/31/45 account for more than 90% of cervical cancer cases) has also been seen with Cervarix (Harper.D.M et al 2006). As longevity of protection is not yet fully elucidated the need for a booster injection and its frequency if need is yet to be established; phase four trials are ongoing. For Gardasil estimations are that the vaccine is between 70 and 100% effective, with the life time risk of cervical cancer reduced to 47% and 30% respectively, compared to 86% risk with the current screening programme alone (Doling TS 2008). The duration of efficacy of Gardasil is not yet known but studies show good efficacy for at least 5 years(Wang KL 2007). Similarly to Cervarix it has not yet been determined whether booster doses are required for Gardasil. Both vaccines were shown to be most effective when administered before sexual debut and subsequent initial infection. The history of HPV infection and cervical cancer development in younger populations is is well understood, this is not so for older women. Although the highest incident of infection is seen in adolescents and early adulthood followed by a gradual decline with age, there is still a significant risk of new infection in sexually active women of all ages. We know that the introduction of new sexual partner is an increased risk and this can happen at any age. When women developed antibodies against a natural infection, the level at peak are generally very low (Vicidi RP et al 2004). Data from phase three Gardasil trials, showed that of the women aged 24-45 only a very small percentage, 0.35% had serological or DNA evidence of all types covered by the vaccine. A study has shown that women seropositive had the same risk of subsequent infection as seronegative women after 5-7 years (Vicidi et al 2004). Another study found that the risk of acquiring a new HPV type does not decrease among those with prior infection by a related or unrelated type. Although higher levels of antibody titer were seen in the younger vaccinated women it appears that there is only a very small proportion of women, those who are seroposative for all types conferred by the vaccine that would not benefit by receiving a vaccination. Even those seroposative for all type protected against after five years would have little protection from a natural infection. The decision to only vaccinate young women seems to have been decided by the high cost of the vaccine. DEVLOOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION section must be added Include polyvalent vaccine in the pipe line Therapeutic vaccines and combination vacines Growth vectors technology/plants ect to reduce cost This is not inthe correct location fit it in somewhere more appropriate. Both Cervarix and Gardasil (the two currently available vaccines) fail to meet some of the criteria seen to aid in the success of past and current vaccination programmes. Both are very expensive at a cost of more than ÂÂ £300 in total for all three doses when compared to the low cost of vaccines such as the MMR or the vaccine against polio. The high cost of the vaccine currently rules out its use in developing countries. The administration strategy for both is also more complicated with three doses required over 6 months. With all three doses required to achieve maximum efficacy, ensuring that all three are given is important and logistically complicate in developed countries, in developing countries especially those that have a high population migration due to public unrest this will be nearly impossible to achieve. As neither vaccine are live the longevity of immunity may also be in question in years to c ome, as of yet there is no answer to whether a booster vaccination will be required. Incudes portical for both vaccine administration MUST DO Both vaccines are very effective, but an effective vaccine is not enough on its own to prevent disease. Public awareness of the efficacy and safety of the vaccine has to be raised by education through health care professionals, schools, posters, and leaflets as seen with succesfull and ongoing vaccination progemmes for smallpox, polio and MMR. Say they are using Cervarix please The vaccination programme followed in the UK was devised and implemented following advice from the joint committee of vaccination and immunisation (JCVI). Vaccine groups were originally split into two separate cohorts: Routine and Catch up The routine cohort is 12-13 year old females (born between 1 September 1995 and 31st August 1996) The catch up cohort is 17-18 year old females (born between September 1st1990 and 31st August 1991). Vaccination uptake figuers for those aged 14-18 are yet to be released as the vaccination campaign is ongoing, and should be completed by the end of the academic year 2009/2010 and therefore this aged group is excluded from this investigation. An overlap for the catchup cohort exsits due to the moving forward of those aged 17-18 to be vaccinated in 2008-2009 to include greater numbers of young women. Vaccination for both routine and catch up cohorts was implemented for the academic year 2008-2009. A high uptake rate is important where vaccines are concerned with regard to achineving herd immunity. In this case as the vaccine is only being given to young girls herd immunity cannot be achived consequently a high uptake rate is even more important, as reservoir of high risk HPV types exists in men and older women. Vaccination uptake in both cohorts was monitored carefully. This monitoring will allow the Department of Health (DOH) to facilitate the effective management of HPV programmes at all levels. Most importantly it will allow in the future the ability to analyse the benefit of the vaccination programme against what may be falling cervical cancer rates. The vaccination was given as per protocol and the uptake figures achieved could improve, especially where those who did not complete the course are given another oppertuninty for vaccination in the academic year 2009-2010. Several factors have already been seen to affect the uptake rate of the vaccine. FACTORS AFFECTING UPTAKE RATE stop think about what your trying to show here before you re arrange and edit, how much detail do you need. What you need to cover Location Choice over-under 16 Canhge of dates ofr cathcup cohort The setting in which the vaccination was given had a significant effect on the uptake rate. (fig 8). Both cohorts were vaccinated in a number of different settings including the school environment, the local general practitioner (where letters were sent to invite for vaccination appendix 1) and in some STI clinics. This will be less of an issue once the catch up programme is complete as vaccination will mostly be given in the school environment where the highest uptake rates were achieved check and change figures number please Fig 8 http:[emailprotected]/* */[emailprotected]/* */[emailprotected]/* *//documents/digitalasset/dh_111676.pdf Fig 8 showing a high uptake rate in the school environment, graph shows that of the PCTs with higher uptake % the vast majority of the vaccines were given in the school environment. The third dose uptake rate seen is much lower (fig 9); perhaps due to the lesser convenience, or possibly due to the availability of less information to allow an informed decision to be made. Those over 16 do not require parental consent and as such may make their own decision; this too may have a significant bearing on the uptake rate. Fig 9 http:[emailprotected]/* */[emailprotected]/* */[emailprotected]/* *//documents/digitalasset/dh_111676.pdf Fig 9 Catch up cohort shows a much lower uptake rate with those in the higher % over 40% being given mainly in the school environment. The differnce in uptake rate was particullary noticable where the third dose of vaccine is concerned. Whys that then? A direct comparison between school based doses 1, 2 and 3 and GP based doses 1, 2 and 3 shows a greater coverage rate achieved by the school based programme when compared to the GP based programme. Lower uptake rate for doses 2 and 3 in the catch up cohort may be partially explained by a change in the dates for beginning the programme; dates were pushed forward to 2008/2009 form 2009/2010. PCTs were only notified in June 2008 that the programme had been pushed forward given them little time to prepare, this my partially explain the lower figures but not fully. Letters were sent (example letters in the appendix) to all girls registered within a PCTS that were eligible but could not receive the vaccine at school, as they had left or because the school was not offering it. Non compliant patients were sent second letters asking them to confirm or decline their interest (example letters in appendix). Second letters were also sent to all patients who had dose 1 but not dose 2 and 3 (appendix). Table 4 Annual UK HPV vaccine coverage for females aged 12-13 years by country, 2008/09 HPV vaccine uptake % Country Dose1 Doses 1 and 2 All three doses NI 89.6 85.9 83.9 Scotland 93.7 92.7 89.4 Wales 87.9 87.0 78.8 England 88.1 86.0 80.1 UK 88.6 86.6 80.9 Across the UK 80.9% of those 12-13 years eligible for the vaccine received all three doses (table 4), with the highest percentages reached in Scotland where a more school based strategy for administration affected their overall uptake rate favourably. When uptake rates are compared with other developed countries the UK with regard to teh routine cohort compares favourably (table 5) , however as teh figures for those aged 14-18 years are not complete it is unfair to make a full comparison with other countries that have include wider age group. Table 5 International HPV vaccine uptake Country Third dose uptake % Delivery method Start date Evaluation period UK 80.9 Schools-based delivery to 12-13- year-olds Sept 2008 Sept 08 to Aug 09 USA 17.9* Through general practice to 13-17-year-olds Jan 2008 Jan 08 to Dec 08 Belgium 44** Schools-based programme to 12-15-year-olds Nov 2007 Nov 07 to Nov 08 Australia 66.3*** Schools-based programme to 12-18-year-olds Apr 2007 Apr 07 to Mar 08 Belongs with factors affecting the vaccination uptake rate Ethnicity religion and English as a first language are associated with acceptability of the vaccine in the UK. Girls form Muslim, Hindu or /Sikh backgrounds are less likely to have the vaccine. Support for this comes from studies of ethnic minority attitudes to HPV testing; where some women felt it reflected non-traditional cultural or religious practices concerning sex and monogamy and form ethnic differences in the use of sexual health services, where a major barrier for south Asian and African minorities is the cultural taboo around discussion of sexual matters. Perceived susceptibility, benefits and barriers were also associated with acceptability. Perceived risk of HPV within the ethnic minority groups was low because of their religious beliefs about sexual abstinence until marriage (Marlow LAV 2009). Another study has shown that ethnic minority parents are more likely to believe that HPV vaccination will result in an increase in risky sexual behaviour, a belief that has been sh own to be a barrier to HPV. A reduction in risk perception was also correlated with less likely hood of vaccine uptake in lowest income families, lack of education around the high risk of HPV and cervical cancer was seen as the reason. (Ref) Also seen was a correlation in safety fears surrounding the vaccine, with those parents less convinced that the vaccine is safe not consenting to is administration. As the vaccine is newly approved and phase four trials are still ongoing questions surrounding long term safety cannot be fully answered. While long term safety remains an important issue adolescent HPV vaccines coverage may; similarly to the MMR vaccine struggle to reach full coverage. Over 16s were seen to have some similar beliefs surrounding the vaccine with lower uptake rate seen in ethnic minorities. This is a worrying trend as it is suspected that those that do not take the vaccine would also be part of the 20% of total invited that do not take up their cervical screening appointment, putting them at extreme risk (appendix). The vaccine in the UK is given to young girls aged 12-13, parental consent is therfore applicable. Thus looking at the limiting factors of uptake rate diffetnt for for this demographic than it does for the catch-up cohort where the majority are over 16 and do not require parental consent. In the long term this will not be a consideration as the administration of the vaccine to those over 16 is time limited. Vaccines in the public eye Natalie Morton In excess of a million single doses of Cervarix have been given in the UK, only one was thought to be associated with the death of a young girl, Natalie Morton. It was quickly established that the real cause of death was a large and previously undetected tumour in Natalies chest that could have killed her at any moment; not from the Cervarix vaccine, this confirmed by the DOH appendix 2). Natalies death on 28/10/09 was covered extensively in the media and the vaccine batch in question was withdrawn and tested by two independent bodies and GSK, no abnormalities were found. Given the extent that the uptake of the MMR vaccine was adversely affected based on unfounded evidence, it is likely that this event will have some effect on the uptake of this vaccine. Data is yet to be published on the vaccination rates for 2009-2010 but information from a nurse working in the Warwikshire PCT (appendix3?) shows that three schools in Coventry (Natalies local area) have withdrawn from the vaccination programme. Since the evidence has shown that the best uptake rates are achieved when vaccinations are given in the school environment; implications for lower uptake rates due to Natalies death, even though unrelated, are already evident. Information surrounding the safety of this vaccine must be made clear to all possible recipients and their parents to allow informed decision rather than rash decisions to be made. The percentage of women screened for cervical abnormalities within the last 5 years has been falling slightly over the last decade, mainly in lower age groups. Data for 2006-2007 show that this is the second year it has dropped below 80% since the early 1990 (appendix 4). This is a concern as there is strong evidence that the death rate is lower in women first screened at a young age. This is clearly evident in developing countries with no screening programme, where the YLL due to cervical cancer are much greater than those of developed countries that do have screening programmes. The effect of the media with regard to Jade Goody, who famously and publicly died of cervical cancer on the 22 March 2009 at the age of 27 was significant. The public nature of her death prompted an increase in the number of women wanting information about cervical cancer and those attending cervical screening. Having interviewed a nurse who works for Warwickshire PCT and discussed with her the impact of the Jade Goody death her estimates were that for the two months following Jades death the screening rate doubled. However she was concerned that after this two month period the rate reverted back to its previous standings. Cancer research also experienced a significant increase in activity on their website. On the day that Jades diagnosis went public the figure increased from the usual 2-3000 to 32,000. They also claim that since then (August 2008) the number of hits per day is sustained at double the level they were before the public diagnosis (Correct to Feb 2009). The increase in the number of women being screened and the increase in information sought; shows that the influence of the media can both raise public awareness and prompt the general public into action. Stories such as those of Jade have had a huge impact. The level of raised awareness surrounding both the dangers of cervical cancer and the benefits of the vaccine must be sustained for the vaccination programme to be truly successful. People need to be encouraged to discuss any fears they have with a health care professional before making the decision to have the vaccination. CONCLUSION HPV vaccines; can they prevent cervical cancer? Go through one at time then delete this bit * Vaccine efficacy * Vaccine Cost/affordability/practicality of administation * Production and Distribution * Government backing and financial commitment * Other support organisations such as the WHO, UNICEF, Gates Foundation, Rotary International * Social factors * Media effects/Public awareness * Safety, and perceived fears Vaccine efficacy/longevity. The efficacy in preventing incident infection in types 16 and 18 for both vaccines is shown to be very high. Cervarix does have some increased protection against HPV types 31 and 45. The concern here is that both vaccines only protect against 70% of HPVs causing cervical cancer, what of the remaining 30%? Is it possible that the remaining high risk HPV types will become more prevalent in the absence of HPV type 16 and 18? There is not enough current data to compare population prevalence of other high risk types of HPV with the prevelence of HPV types 16 and 18 to allow this question to be answered. As we know cervical cancer is uncommon in women under 25 and is highest in women over 40 and as the oldest of the vaccinated cohort are 18 it will be several years before any real figures can be analysed. Screening will need to continue along with HPV typing for all cases of cervical cancer to allow monitoring of the possible success of the vaccine, to monitor for cervical cancer caused by the high risk types that are not covered by the vaccine, and to protect those that did not take up the vaccine or were not of eligible age. Cost affordability/practicality Both vaccines are very expensive, limiting use to more developed countries. Novel growth vectors are being explored in an attempt to lower the cost making the vaccine more widely available. A multivalent vaccine that protects against all types of high risk HPV would also be advantageous. There is a polyvalent vaccine in development that protects against nine high risk HPVs. If the cost of the vaccine was lowered to be affordable for developing countries the current regime of 3 doses over 6 months would not be practical. In the UK where the population is stable and also has easy access to healthcare the uptake rate of the third dose is significantly lower than that of the first two doses; adding our relevant limiting factors to the public unrest, mass migration, and sporadic healthcare in some developing countries it is clear to see that the current programme would be almost unattainable under these circumstances. Development/distribution Multiple therapeutic vaccines are in early development that may be more appropriate for those already exposed to high risk HPV types. Combination vaccines that are both therapeutic and prophylactic are also in development. DISTRIBUTION Support, governments/WHO/CDC/UNICEF The governments of many developed countries have shown support for the vaccine through the introduction of national immunization programmes. With the vaccines safety under question after the unrelated death of Natalie Morton greater effort needs to be made to publicise the well established safety of the vaccine. Media effects Public Awareness Can be good or bad but as they are free to publish only selected information they naturally select what will sell their products rather than report the full facts. This is unfortunate but in our free society is an inevitability that we have to work around as Jade Goody did Public awareness leaflets, posters and education are all important factors in maintaining a high uptake rate. Minorities that are more reluctant to have the vaccine should be targeted specifically with information pertaining to the dangers of cervical cancer and the benefits of the vaccine. MEDIA Safety Safety of the vaccines must be shown along with the few side effects seen after administration, this is critical to achieve a high uptake rate as was seen with MMR and more than likely due to the tragic death of Natalie Morton, if is question is raised regarding safety the take up rate could be reduced dramatically. Al current data indicates that the current HPV vaccines should prevent some incidence of cervical cancer by preventing incident infection of HPV types 16 and 18, new more novel vaccination will need to be developed to prevent cervical cancers caused by all HPV types. The long term efficacy of the current vaccine will also need to be monitored to establish if a booster is required at a later date to maintain protection. The Vaccination of other high risk group should also be considered. MORE Older women MEN ERADICATION is this a possibilityNO As the vaccine is only given to girls there is not protection by herd immunity as in essence men will continue to be a reservoir for HPV types 16 and 18, for this reason the uptake rate in women need to be as high as possible, no vaccine no protection at all. Could the vaccine be used to protect against other kinds of cancer? Yes more than likely however with the incidence of other cancers caused by HPV types 16 and 18 is so small that the vaccination programme at the current vaccination cost would not be cost effective. If there becomes available a multi valent vaccine that protects against more HPV types a t a significantly lower cost they could be given to men. Then possibly eradication, if the virus has no zoontic reservoir. Could the vaccine be used to protect against other kinds of cancer? Yes more than likely however with the incidence of other cancers caused by HPV types 16 and 18 is so small that the vaccination programme at the current vaccination cost would not be cost effective. If there becomes available a multi valent vaccine that protects against more HPV types a t a significantly lower cost they could be given to men. Will we ever eradicate HPV unlikely, will we ever eradicate oncogenic HPV. Who knows!!!!!! As of yet there is little evidence due to the newness of the vaccine to show that the vaccines will prevent cervical cancer at all. There is ample evidence that the vaccine prevents incident infection and that antibody levels are consistent for up to 7 years, Is the elimination of oncogenic HPV realistic Not with the current vaccines and not at the current cost Im afraid. My opinion Women of all ages should be able to take an informed decision when considering an HPV vaccination, 1 | Page